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The human body is the most complex thing on earth.  How the human body functions is equally complex.  The complete answers as to How and Why have not yet been fully discovered.  Nutrients are the basic raw materials of body structure and function that allow life to exist.  The information in the various nutrient sections is provided as a general Guideline of Understanding for those who desire to expand their knowledge about those basic substances in food that keep our body functioning, keep us healthy and alive, and form the basis of “Proper Nutrition.”  They are the very things that interact with each other – and our cells – on the most fundamental molecular level to provide us with our basic physical structure and ability to function, and finally answers the question:

What Do Nutrients Do?…With the answer being:  Everything!

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Nutrients – The Basis of Life and Health

• Nutrient Basics
• Protein
• Carbohydrates
• Fats
• Water
• Oxygen

Nutrient Basics

Nutrients do everything.  They are the raw materials of body function, structure, health and life.  The human body cannot function, health cannot thrive, and life cannot exist without them.  Nutrients are the fundamental biological reason why we eat.

Macronutrients & Micronutrients

The nutrients needed by the human body in relatively large amounts are called macronutrients.  The macronutrients are: Protein, Carbohydrates, Fats and Water.  The nutrients needed by the human body in relatively small amounts are called micronutrients.  The micronutrients are: Vitamins, Minerals & Phytochemicals.

Nutrient Measurements

Nutrients are measured by weight in grams (g), in milligrams (mg), and in micrograms (mcg), with some nutrients (vitamins A, D and E) measured by their biological activity in International Units (IU) which roughly corresponds with micrograms.  In scientific literature micrograms are often abbreviated as “µg.”  Water and food are measured by weight in ounces (oz), while liquids are typically measured by ounces and/or by volume in liters (l).  About 28 grams equals one ounce.  One liter equals a little more than 33 ounces (slightly more than a quart at 32 oz).

Protein, carbohydrates and fats are measured in grams, while vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals are measured in milligrams and micrograms.

1,000 mcg = 1mg; 1,000 mg = 1 g; 28 g = 1 oz.

Nutrient Intake References

Nutrient Intake References are used as a guideline for nutrient intake, and as a nutrient planning and assessment tool.  The following are commonly used references and appear with each nutrient listed (if established or known for that particular nutrient):

RDA – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Institute of Medicine sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of most healthy adults, is known as the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), and is part of the set of guidelines known as the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).  RDAs are a planning tool as a guideline for the amount of nutrient intake.

AI – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Institute of Medicine as adequate for apparently healthy people when an RDA cannot be determined, is known as Adequate Intake (AI), and is part of the set of guidelines known as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).  AIs are an assessment tool.

UL – The highest average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Institute of Medicine that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects in most adults (but increases above the UL may increase potential risk of adverse effects), is known as the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL), and is part of the set of guidelines known as the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).  ULs are an assessment tool.

RDI – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for healthy adults who consume 2,000 to 2,500 calories a day, is referred to on food labels as Percent Daily Value (% DV), and is known as the Reference Daily Intake (RDI) (previously known as the US RDA).  RDIs are a planning tool as a guideline for amount of nutrient intake in relation to the total calories consumed.

ALT – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level commonly suggested for healthy adults by most nutritionally knowledgeable alternative doctors and nutritionists, with such Alternative (ALT) intake levels recognized or believed to have added health benefits.  ALTs are a planning tool as a guideline for amount of nutrient intake.

TOX – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level for adults generally regarded as Toxic (TOX) or believed to produce adverse effects, if known.  TOXs are a guideline of toxic amounts of nutrient intake.  Note that anything consumed in very large amounts can have deleterious effects.  Even water, which is probably the most benign thing that is consumed, can cause death if consumed in massive amounts.

The following list of macronutrients (protein, carbohydrates, fats and water), and what they primarily do in the human body, will provide a basic understanding that will underscore their vital importance.  Amounts indicated are suggested amounts for healthy adults.

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Protein

Protein is the major structural and functional component of all cells in the human body, is used for tissue structure (such as muscle, organs, membranes and membrane carriers, keratin and collagen) and their growth, repair and maintenance, chemical production (such as hormones and enzymes), transport carriers (such as lipoproteins), and also supports water balance, pH balance, and the immune system.

Proteins are organic molecules that contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and in some cases, sulfur.  They are made up of linked chains of smaller molecules known as amino acids that can combine in an almost infinite number of ways, forming different proteins that have unique amino acid sequences and chemical characteristics.  Proteins in both the diet and body are more complex and variable than the other two energy (calorie) sources, carbohydrates and fats.  The defining characteristic of protein is its requisite amino nitrogen group.  The average content of nitrogen in dietary protein is about 16% by weight, with nitrogen metabolism considered a measure of protein metabolism.

An adequate supply of dietary protein is essential to maintain cellular structural and functional integrity, and to maintain health.  Adequate high-quality protein intake (such as whey protein), but not too much protein (which can increase acidity in the body), along with an abundant consumption of acid-buffering fruits and vegetables, is considered optimum to help prevent age-related loss of muscle mass (known as sarcopenia) and may even help restore lost muscle mass in older adults.  This is especially true with the catalytic help of regular resistance weight training exercises (i.e., using weights, machines, bands, pulleys, or even body weight such as with push-ups, pull-ups, and dips).  Exercised muscles act as a catalyst that generates the physical stimulus through applied mechanical stress to help keep muscles (and bones) healthy – and requires an adequate protein intake.

Protein Source:  Animal foods (meat, eggs and dairy products), fish and seafood, legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans), and protein supplements (whey protein supplements are believed to be especially good protein supplements).  There are 4 calories of potential energy per gram of protein.  (Calories are not physical things in food but rather are a measure of potential metabolism energy, analogous to the way a degree is not a physical thing but rather a measure of temperature.)

RDA: 0.80 gram of protein per kilogram (2.2 lbs.) of body weight per day is believed needed to maintain nitrogen balance for most adults (which is 0.36 gram of protein per pound of body weight per day for an adult, i.e., body weight x 0.36), up to 1 gram per kilogram of body weight per day for those who engage in heavy physical work or resistance weight training (which is 0.45 gram of protein per pound of body weight per day for an adult who regularly engages in physical activity or exercise, i.e., body weight x 0.45).  The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine recommends that protein should make up 10-35% of the calories consumed by adults, depending on their health status and level of physical activity.

TOX: Excess protein intake is known to overburden the kidneys which may lead to kidney damage if the excess protein intake is habitual.  Excess protein increases acidity in the body, which can have negative health consequences, but can be offset with an abundant consumption of acid-buffering fruits and vegetables.  The Institute of Medicine warns that caution is warranted with the intake of individual amino acids taken at levels significantly above that normally found in food.  It is generally deemed prudent to take individual amino acids only with the guidance of a nutritionally-oriented doctor.

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Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates (carbs), which are sugars and starches, are the body’s primary energy source (which readily converts to blood glucose), and their consumption is what stimulates insulin secretion.

Carbohydrates are basically composed of carbon molecules and water molecules (hence, the name: “carbo” – “hydrates”).  Glucose is the most common source of energy in the body, and is especially important for brain cells and red blood cells as it is their sole source of energy.  Energy is released when glucose is converted to carbon dioxide and water during cellular metabolism.  Excess glucose is stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen for later use, and when these reserves are filled to capacity the excess glucose is converted to triglycerides and stored in adipose tissues as body fat.  Carbohydrates are organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and are of three basic types:

1. Simple carbs are simple sugars or refined carbs.  They include all forms of sugar, refined grain products, alcohol, and fruit (concentrated in fruit juice and dried fruit), and are composed of simple sugars (saccharides) with a simple molecular monosaccharide structure such as glucose (a basic sugar) and fructose (fruit sugar), and disaccharides such as sucrose (table sugar), maltose (malt sugar) and lactose (milk sugar).  If the word ends in “ose” then it’s a sugar.

It is the simple carbs that tend to spike insulin levels.  Excess simple sugars in the diet are thought to be the source of several conditions that affect health (such as obesity, insulin resistance, and development of blood sugar problems), and are believed to be a contributory factor in various forms of degenerative health conditions.  Because of their nutrient and fiber content, whole fresh fruit is perhaps the only healthful food that is predominately a simple carb.

A popular sugar substitute in certain manufactured foods is sugar alcohol, which is common in “low-carb” foods and snacks.  Sugar alcohols are artificial sweeteners that contain about half the calories of sugar but nonetheless can legally be labeled as “sugar free.”  When sugar alcohols are used they are listed in the ingredients on the food label as either: Sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, erythritol, isomalt, lactitol, maltitol, or hydrogenated starch hydrolysates (HSH).  Sugar alcohols are generally not considered healthful, and can cause adverse side effects such as abdominal cramping, bloating and diarrhea.  The long term effects of the consumption of sugar alcohols are unknown.

2. Complex carbs are starches and fiber.  They have a more complex molecular structure called polysaccharides (polymers of glucose), and are found in whole grain products, legumes and vegetables, with dietary fiber also being a type of complex carb.

It is the complex carbs that provide glucose in a more steady fashion than the simple carbs and therefore tend to stimulate a more even and less intense insulin secretion.  Complex carbs are regarded as the healthful alternative to simple carbs – they provide energy without spiking insulin production.

3. Dietary Fiber is a type of complex carb that is a combination of partially digestible soluble fiber (such as gums and mucilages) and indigestible insoluble fiber (such as cellulose, lignin and pectin).  It is found exclusively in plant foods because it is what forms the structure of plants and plant cell walls.

Dietary fiber originates in plant parts (fruit and vegetable skin, pulp, leaves, stems, seeds, roots and husks), and is especially abundant in whole grains, bran, and dietary fiber supplement products.  Refined plant foods and simple carbs contain little or no fiber.

There are two basic types of dietary fiber, soluble fiber and insoluble fiber.

Soluble fiber, so-called because it undergoes metabolic processing by the body via fermentation that yields beneficial end-products, is predominant in such food as apples, carrots and legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans).

Insoluble fiber, so-called because it passes through the body essentially unchanged but nonetheless is beneficial as a result of it being hydrophilic (i.e., attracts and holds water, which increases intestinal bulk, softens the stool, and shortens stool transit time) and helps prevent toxin buildup in the intestinal tract.  It is predominant in such food as whole grains, bran, flax, celery, green beans, potato skins and tomato peel.

Foods that contain fiber generally have variable amounts of both soluble and insoluble fiber.  Some foods, such as oats, have an equal balance of both soluble and insoluble fiber.

Dietary fiber supports health, especially heart and colon health, and is needed by the body for proper food movement through the intestinal tract.  Psyllium fiber is believed to be an especially beneficial form of dietary fiber for cardiovascular and GI tract health.

Carbohydrate Source:  Plant foods.  There is some amount of carbs found in select animal foods such as milk (because of milk’s lactose content).  There are 4 calories of potential energy per gram of carbohydrate.

RDA: An intake amount of 130 grams of carbohydrates per day is needed for adults, and is based on the average minimum amount of glucose needed by the brain for it to function.  This is less than the average amount of carbs consumed by most adults per day, which is thought to be the source or contributory factor of such health conditions as obesity, insulin resistance, and development of blood sugar problems, especially when such excess carb intake consists primarily of sugar and refined carbs (which can be thought of as hidden sugar).  The median intake of carbs is estimated at approximately 220-330 grams per day for adult men, and 180-230 grams per day for adult women.  The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine recommends that carbohydrates should make up about 45-65% of the calories consumed by adults.

TOX: Excess carbs, especially excess sugar and refined carbs, tend to spike insulin levels and when habitually consumed can cause insulin resistance which can lead to blood sugar problems.  Excess refined carbs are readily converted to triglycerides (which are especially susceptible to oxidation and can cause free radical damage to cells), and are readily stored in adipose tissues as body fat.  Excess intake of sugar and refined carbs causes obesity.

Good Carbs & Bad Carbs

Generally, the complex carbs from whole grains (barley and oats are thought to be especially healthful), fresh vegetables, legumes, seeds, and dietary fiber are considered the “good carbs.”

Most of the simple carbs (whole fresh fruit excepted) and all the refined carbs (all forms of sugar, refined grain products, alcohol, and especially the omnipresent sweetening agent high-fructose corn syrup) are considered the “bad carbs.”

The “good carbs” support health, while the “bad carbs” detract from health.  (See “The Advanced Glycemic Index” for specific details about healthful carbohydrate intake.)

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Fats

Fats are classified as lipids.  Lipids function in the body as cell membrane and nerve sheath insulation protective components, help regulate body temperature, are involved in the production of hormones and hormone-like compounds known as prostaglandins, support internal organ protective padding, assists in the uptake of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K, and are a major energy (calorie) source.  Fats are composed of fatty acids and glycerol – 3 fatty acids molecularly connected to 1 glycerol derivative.

The main blood lipid and dietary fat is triglycerides, which is the primary fat in food.  The other lipids are phospholipids (such as lecithin, which is a fat emulsifier) and sterols (such as cholesterol).  Excess dietary fat intake is stored as triglycerides in adipose tissues as body fat.

Basically, fats are organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with some also containing nitrogen and phosphorus.  Dietary fats are either saturated (having more hydrogen saturation in their molecular structure), or unsaturated (having less hydrogen saturation in their molecular structure).  There are four basic kinds:

1. Saturated fats, so-called because they have more of a hydrogen molecule saturation in their molecular structure, predominate in animal foods (meat, eggs and dairy products).  Excess consumption of saturated animal fats has been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular health problems, as well as other health problems.  While most saturated fat is found in animal foods, there is a plant-food source in coconut oil which is thought to help support normal health and function of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) when consumed in small quantites.  Recent research has suggested that a small amount of saturated fat may be necessary to maintain health.

2. Polyunsaturated fats are an unsaturated fat and are so-called because of their relatively more complex molecular structure (“poly” = many), and predominate in vegetable oils (such as corn, soybean and sunflower oils).  Excess consumption of the polyunsaturated vegetable oils has been linked to an increased risk of certain kinds of gastrointestinal tract health problems.  Vegetable oils predominately contain omega-6 fatty acids.

The primary healthy polyunsaturated fat is considered to be the omega-3 fatty acids from fish and seafood.  The omega-3 fatty acids, specifically from fish and seafood, are believed to support cardiovascular health, help control inflammation, and support brain and nervous system function.  Especially good sources for the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are believed to be from sardines and wild salmon.

Flaxseeds and flaxseed oil is another rich source of omega-3 fatty acids.  However, there is some concern over the unbalanced and concentrated intake of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), the major essential fatty acid in flaxseeds and flaxseed oil, because some studies have indicated that concentrated sources of ALA (specifically from flaxseed oil) may tend to increase the risk of prostate and eye problems.  (Reference: “Are essential fatty acids bad for you?” by Dr. Jonathan V. Wright, January 4, 2010, healthiertalk.com.)  It is thought that ground whole flaxseeds, with its nutrient and fiber content intact and balanced, may be a healthier alternative than concentrated flaxseed oil.  Generally, whole foods tend to be thought of as healthier than isolated and concentrated components because they contain a full spectrum of the nutrients in the whole food, which tends to provide a supportive functional synergy between the components.  In a word:  Balance.

3. Monounsaturated fats are an unsaturated fat and are so-called because of their relatively simple molecular structure (“mono” = one), and predominate in certain kinds of plant foods and oils (such as avocados, olives, peanuts, nuts and seeds, and canola, olive and peanut oils).  Monounsaturated fats contain omega-9 fatty acids, and because they tend to be less susceptible to oxidation than other fats they are generally regarded as healthful.

4. Trans fats are manipulated polyunsaturated or monounsaturated vegetable oils that have had extra hydrogen atoms forced onto their trans side (as opposed to their cis side) of their carbon chain molecular structure, making it more like the straight carbon chain of a fully saturated fat.  (“Trans” is Latin for “across” as in across to the other side of the carbon chain, and “cis” is Latin for “on the same side” as in on the same side of the carbon chain.)  The added hydrogen atoms of a trans fat causes the carbon chain to straighten, which dictates how the trans fat is used (metabolized) by the body.  Trans fats are metabolized differently by the liver than other dietary fats, interfering with the delta 6 desaturase enzyme that is involved in normal essential fatty acid conversion.

Trans fats are listed in the ingredients on food labels as hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated oils.  Trans fats can generally be thought of as a naturally occurring fat that has been transformed by man into an unnatural fat.

A small amount of a type of trans fat naturally occurs in the milk and body fat of cows and sheep.  As a percentage of their total fat, hydrogenated vegetable oils contain about 45% trans fat, shortenings about 30% trans fat, margarine about 15% trans fat, cow’s milk about 4% trans fat, and, for comparison, human milk contains about 3% trans fat.

Because of their unnatural hydrogen molecule structure and unnatural processing by the body, hydrogenated trans fats are thought to pose even more of a health risk than saturated animal fats.  The primary health risks associated with trans fat consumption is an increased risk of elevated blood levels of C-reactive protein (an inflammation marker) and cardiovascular health problems.  Any amount of hydrogenated trans fats in the diet are considered unhealthy.

Recently, some food processors have replaced hydrogenation (which modifies the fat’s molecular structure) with a process known as “interesterification” (ITE), especially in such foods as margarine to produce a more solid spread.  However, “interesterification” also modifies the molecular structure of the fat (oil), and the regular consumption of such an unnatural fat may carry with it untold health consequences.  In spite of natural churned butter being predominately a saturated animal fat, it is still considered a healthier alternative to processed margarine because of their hydrogenated trans fat content or their ITE processing.

All dietary fats and oils are a varying combination of saturated, polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats, and are considered which kind by whichever fat predominates.  As an example, olive oil is considered a heart-healthy monounsaturated fat because it is composed of about 76% monounsaturated fat.  Likewise for canola oil at about 63% monounsaturated fat.

High heat and rancidity can change the molecular structure of a fat and damage it.  Damaged fats are considered unhealthy.  Oils and fats that are heated to the point of smoking are damaged.  This is why canola oil (with its higher smoke point) is better for cooking applications, while olive oil (with it lower smoke point) is best consumed only slightly heated or even unheated.  Meat cooked to the point of charring has damaged fat and is considered unhealthy.  Charred fat is burnt fat.  Oils and fats excessively exposed to air and light become rancid, which damages them.  Damaged fats are unhealthy to consume.

Fats Source:  A diet that maintains a balance in the following dietary fats is generally considered part of a healthy diet:

Consuming a diet that contains foods where monounsaturated fats predominate (avocados, olives, peanuts and other legumes, nuts, seeds, and canola, macadamia, olive and peanut oils), and where the polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids predominate (seafood and fatty fish, such as wild salmon and sardines) over the omega-6 fatty acids in vegetable oils.  Also, only small amounts of saturated fat (from animal foods or coconut oil), no trans fats, no hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated oils, and probably no ITE fats.

Good Fats & Bad Fats

The monounsaturated fats, and especially the omega-3 fatty acids, are considered the “good fats.”  Excess saturated animal fats, excess polyunsaturated vegetable oils, and especially the trans fats and hydrogenated oils (and possibly the ITE fats) are considered the “bad fats.”  The “good fats” support health, while the “bad fats” detract from health.

The one thing that can change a “good fat” into a “bad fat” is if it has been altered, such as adding hydrogen atoms onto the fat molecule (making it a hydrogenated fat), or excessively heating the fat during cooking which also changes its molecular structure (transforming it into a trans fat).  The reason hydrogenated and trans fats are considered “bad fats” is because they are unnatural fats that the human body cannot properly metabolize.  It remains to be seen if the altered ITE fats fall into the “bad fats” category or not.  Because their molecular structure has been altered, they probably will.

At 9 calories of potential energy per gram, fats are the most calorie dense food.  Rather than being a physical thing in food, calories are a measure of potential energy (analogous to the way degrees are not a physical thing but rather a measure of temperature).

No RDA or AI has been set for dietary fat intake.  However, The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine recommends that fats should make up about 20-35% of the calories consumed by healthy adults, while the American Heart Association recommends a total fat intake of less than 30% with no more than 10% from saturated animal fat, and warns about consuming trans fats.

Protein, carbohydrates, and fats all provide potential energy (calories) and can be burned as fuel.  However, the human body prefers carbs as its primary energy source, followed by fats, with protein last.  These major nutrients can generally be thought of as: Protein for structure, Carbohydrates for energy, and Fats for protection.

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Water

Although not thought of as a nutrient, water is nonetheless extremely important.

Water helps regulate body temperature, supports blood flow, and provides the fluid environment for all bodily processes.  Water makes up about 60% of the body by weight in adult men, and about 55% in adult women, with the difference being because women generally have more body fat than men (to accommodate childbirth).

About 60% of the water in the body is used inside the cells (intracellular), and about 40% is used outside the cells (extracellular).  The approximate water composition of body parts are: Blood 95%, the brain 85%, muscle tissue75%, organs more than 70%, bone 22%, and body fat about 10%.  In addition to the blood, the water-based extracellular fluid bathes all the cells and is part of the spinal fluid, the ocular fluid for lubricating the eyes, the synovial fluid that lubricates the joints, the lymph fluid that drains from tissue spaces that helps carry away waste and remove germs, and is a fundamental part of various secretions (such as bile, gastric juice, mucus and saliva).

Water is an active participant in all chemical processes of the body, and plays an important role in the maintenance of the vitally important electrolyte balance.

Water is the body’s basic lubricant, reactant, solvent, and is an active participant in hydrolysis (the separation of the components of water, hydrogen and oxygen, for use in a variety of body functions).  As a solvent, water disassembles and rearranges molecules that are essential to the chemistry of body function and life.  As a conductor of electricity, water is vital to the electrical potential of nerve cells (neurons) and the important electrochemical neurotransmitters.

Water is vital for the chemistry and physiology of the neurotransmitters in the brain that allow all bodily processes and thought processes to take place, and to allow cells to communicate with each other (known as cell-signaling).  Neurotransmitters are chemicals used to relay, amplify and modulate signals that bridge the gap (synapse) between neurons and other cells, and when function as such are known as chemical synapses.  Chemical synapses are specialized junctions through which neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands, triggering their function.  Chemical synapses allow neurons to form interconnected circuits within the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord), are thus critical to the biological computations that underlie perception and the thought process, and are what allow the nervous system to connect and control all the other systems of the body.  Chemical synapses are what basically allow the thought process and body function to take place – and is facilitated by water.

Water Source:  The body’s water supply comes from three basic sources: Consumed food, carbohydrate breakdown, and direct fluid intake.

1. Food (except for fats, oils and dried grains) runs about 40-95% water.  Food contains approximately the following percentages of water: Oils 0%, dried grains 10%, fats (such as butter) 15%, dairy products 40-80% (40% for the denser hard cheeses and 80% for yogurt), meat, poultry and fish 65-80%, and fruits and vegetables 80-95%.

2. Carbohydrate Metabolism Byproduct – Is the “hydrate” part of carbohydrates (with carbon molecules being the other part).  Water is released as carbohydrates are broken down (metabolized) into their component parts for use by the body.

3.  Drinking – Direct fluid intake.

Water Intake:  There is no RDA for water.  However, it is generally recommended that the average adult needs about 2 quarts (64 oz., or 8-8 oz. glasses) of water a day to replace what is lost through the skin, urine, bowels and lungs.

A basic rule-of-thumb for water intake is to consume about one-half your body weight in ounces per day.  However, not to be forgotten is the fact that food also contains varying amounts of water, and this also counts toward fulfilling the body’s water requirement (with fruit and veggies having the highest percentage of water content).  The need for water increases for those who are in hot environments and/or are engaged in a physical activity where heavy sweating occurs.

Lack of adequate water consumption can cause dehydration.  Chronic dehydration can cause kidney damage, which can lead to potentially life-threatening kidney failure.  It is possible however to consume too much water under extreme circumstances.  A massive amount of water consumption over a short period of time will dilute the sodium content of the blood (sodium is an essential electrolyte mineral), which causes a condition known as hyponatremia (low blood sodium), also known as “water intoxication,” which causes intracranial pressure (the brain to swell and press against the inside of the skull) – which in severe cases can cause seizures, coma, and even death to occur.  Fortunately, it is easy to maintain a healthful balanced intake of water between the extremes of dehydration (which is fairly common) and water intoxication (which is quite rare), simply by following the reasonable guidelines for water intake.

Water Quality:  The best sources of drinking water are generally believed to be natural water that has had nothing added or removed and thus contains all of the naturally occurring minerals inherent in natural water, with minerals being the only nutrients in water.

Natural spring water and deep-well water are generally regarded as the best quality and least contaminated natural drinking water.  Distilled water and de-ionized water have the naturally occurring minerals removed and as a result are not regarded as healthful, in spite of the fact that distilled water has most contaminants removed (which isn’t the case with de-ionized water which only has its minerals removed).  It has been noted that gold fish cannot survive in a fish bowl of distilled or de-ionized water, while natural water that has not been manipulated by man can support life (as evidenced by the abundance of life in the mineral-rich oceans and streams of the world).

There are only two basic aspects to natural water: It being a fluid, and it having minerals.  If it lacks naturally occurring minerals then it is not how Mother Nature intended it and shortchanges the body if consumed.  The regular consumption of distilled water may even cause or contribute to various health conditions by causing a drain of minerals from the body’s limited mineral stores.  The regular consumption of carbonated water, which is acidic, may disrupt the normal pH balance which can cause acid-buffering calcium to be leached from the bones (similar to the way phosphoric acid in sodas do), which is thought to be a contributory factor in unbalanced calcium metabolism and dystrophic calcification.  The regular consumption of the newer fad or modified waters, such as alkaline water, may interfere with nutrient uptake and normal food digestion.  Pure natural spring water that has its natural mineral content intact (and contains minimal contaminants) is considered the best quality drinking water, and the most healthful.  Drinking water that is especially rich in the essential electrolyte mineral magnesium is believed to be especially healthful, particularly for the health and normal function of the cardiovascular system.

Water is the fundamental fluid of body function and life.

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Oxygen

Oxygen is of course not a nutrient, but it is the single most vital thing we consume.

Cells burn fuel (carbs, fats and protein, in that preferred order) for metabolic energy by combining with oxygen, with this known as cellular respiration.  The environmental air we breathe actually contains only about 21% oxygen, with the rest of air being composed of about 78% nitrogen and small amounts of argon and carbon dioxide (and trace amounts of other gases), and contains a variable amount of water vapor averaging about 1%.

Oxygen is produced by the sunlight-driven splitting of water during the process known as photosynthesis of algae (70%) and plants (30%), in exchange for exhaled carbon dioxide as provided by humans and other mammals.

Oxygen is a double-edged sword.  Oxygen, which is needed for life to exist, also readily combines with other elements and compounds which is the source of oxidation.  Oxidation is a chemical reaction where oxygen combines with an element, or where there is a loss of one or more electron in an atom, molecule or ion that then becomes an unstable free radical.  Free radicals are atoms, molecules or ions with an unpaired electron which are highly reactive and potentially damaging to the body, especially if in excess.  Antioxidants, such as vitamins A, C and E, help keep free radicals in check and thus help prevent free radical damage from occurring.

After thoughtfully reviewing the macronutrients it becomes apparent that there is a close relationship and interaction between what they do and how they function in the human body.  However, they are not the whole story.  The micronutrients (vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals) are the rest of the story that completes the picture.  All of the nutrients together are what allows the human body to function and life to exist, with their quality and quantity being what allows the body to achieve its optimum healthful state – homeostasis – and to thrive.

(See “Vital Vitamins,” “Magnificent Minerals” and “Special Nutrients I & II” for more detailed information, and see “Nutrients-At-A-Glance™” for a concise nutrient summary.)

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The following is a concise list of nutrients, their primary function, and suggested daily intake levels for healthy adults.  Certain health conditions may require a different intake (lesser or greater) of certain nutrients, as directed and guided by a knowledgeable nutritionally-oriented healthcare practitioner.  Do not start any supplement regimen without first checking with your doctor.

For more detailed information about each nutrient, vitamin-like substance and phytochemical, including details on what they do and intake levels, see: “Nutrients – The Basis of Life and Health,” “Vital Vitamins,” “Magnificent Minerals,” “Special Nutrients I (Vitamin-Like Substances),” and “Special Nutrients II (Phytochemicals).”

Macronutrients

Protein – Supports tissue structure, chemical production, water balance, and pH balance
– 0.36 grams per lb body weight

Carbohydrates – Energy production; simple carbs = sugar, complex carbs = starch and fiber
– 130 grams/day

Fats – Cell membrane and nerve sheath protection, energy and hormone production
– 20-35% of calorie intake

Water – Regulates body temperature, blood flow, & provides body’s fluid environment
– 8 glasses (64 oz.) a day

Vitamins

Vitamin A – Eyes and vision, healthy skin, cell membranes, & immune system support
– 3,000-5,000 IU/day

Beta-carotene – Water-soluble antioxidant provitamin form of vitamin A
– 10,000 IU to 20,000 IU/day

Vitamin B1 (thiamin) – Energy production, carbohydrate metabolism, & nerve function
– 1.2 mg to 50 mg/day

Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) – Energy production, cell function, vision, & antioxidant activity
– 1.3 mg to 50 mg/day

Vitamin B3-1 (niacin) – Energy production, lipid metabolism, affects cellular calcium, & DNA
– 15-20 mg/day

Vitamin B3-2 (niacinamide) – Memory, joint health, balance, muscle function, & energy
– 50 mg/day

Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) – Energy production, lipid synthesis and metabolism, & nerves
– 5-50 mg/day

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) – Protein, glycogen and homocysteine metabolism, & immune support
– 1.5 mg to 75 mg/day

Vitamin B12 – Nerves, red blood cells, energy, brain function, & homocysteine metabolism
– 2.4 mcg to 500 mcg/day

Folic Acid (folate) – Works with vitamin B12 in several ways, & prevents neural tube birth defects
– 400-800 mcg/day

Biotin – Energy production, cellular metabolism, DNA, healthy skin, scalp, hair and nails
– 30-300 mcg/day

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) – Vascular, immune system, healthy bones & gums, & antioxidant
– 90 mg to 2,000 mg/day

Vitamin D (D3 from fish oil) – Supports mineral uptake, bone mineralization, immune system
– 1,000 IU/day (2,000 IU/day for 7-10 days for short term immune boost – More than 1,000 IU/day can deplete magnesium and more than 2,000 IU/day can mobilize calcium out of bones)

Vitamin E (tocopherol) – Cardiovascular health, circulation, cell membranes, & antioxidant
– 23-800 IU/day

Vitamin K (K1 from plant foods) – Blood coagulation and clotting, and bone mineralization
– 120 mcg/day

Vitamin-Like Substances

Acetyl L-Carnitine – Fatty acid energy production and cellular transfer, nerve function, & memory
– 500-1,000 mg/day

Alpha-Lipoic Acid – Antioxidant, recycles other antioxidants, affects glucose and nerve function
– 30-100 mg/day

Choline – Supports brain, nerve, liver, cell membrane, and acetylcholine function
– 425-550 mg/day

Coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone) – Supports heart, muscles, nerves, and ATP energy production
– 60-100 mg/day  (The ubiquinol form of CoQ10 is thought to have enhanced uptake.)

Essential Fatty Acids (omega-3s) – Heart & blood health, mental function, inflammation reduction
– 1,600 mg/day

Inositol – Supports cellular and nervous system function, and communication between cells
– 40 mg/day

Para-Aminobenzoic Acid (PABA) – GI tract health, red blood cell formation, healthy skin and hair
– 50 mg/day

Minerals

Calcium – Supports bones, nerve impulses, muscle contractions, blood coagulation and clotting
– 300-650* mg/day
(*for optimum cardiovascular health – See “The Role of Calcium” for more details)

Magnesium – Cardiovascular, bones, energy, cell and muscle function, & calcium balance
– 1,000* mg/day  
(*for optimum cardiovascular health – See “Unbalanced Calcium Metabolism” for more details)

Potassium – Important electrolyte, balances sodium & water, maintains cell membrane potential
– 4,700* mg/day  
(*from plant foods only – See “Optimum Sodium & Potassium Intake for Healthy Blood Pressure”)

Sodium – Important electrolyte, balances potassium & water, maintains cell membrane potential
– 1,500* mg/day  (*1,300 mg/day age 51+)
(See “Optimum Sodium & Potassium Intake for Healthy Blood Pressure”)

Chloride – An important electrolyte in salt, supports digestion, & works closely with sodium
– 1,800-2,300 mg/day

Phosphorus – Supports skeletal structure, energy phosphorylation, cell membranes, & pH buffer
– 700 mg/day

Zinc – Supports immune system, nerve & muscle function, reproduction, cell structure & function
– 11-40 mg/day

Iron – Supports red blood cell production & function, oxygen transport, and proteins & enzymes
– 8 mg/day

Iodine – Supports thyroid function, nerve & reproductive systems, energy production, and the skin
– 150 mcg/day

Selenium – An antioxidant active in cells, cell membranes, GI tract, and cardiovascular system
– 55-200 mcg/day

Copper – Supports energy production, collagen formation, bones, nerves, heart & immune system
– 1-2 mg/day

Chromium – Supports energy production, glucose levels, cardiovascular system & insulin function
– 200 mcg/day

Fluoride – A nonessential trace mineral that in small amounts supports bone and teeth hardness
– 3-4 mg/day

Manganese – As a coenzyme supports glucose metabolism, antioxidant activity, brain & collagen
– 2-10 mg/day

Molybdenum – As a coenzyme affects metabolism, cell function, homocysteine, bones & nerves
– 45 mcg/day

Silica – Supports connective tissues, skin, hair, nails, gums, eyes, blood vessels, & ligaments
– 25 mg/day

Several other mineral elements are also present in and used by the human body.  Relatively large amounts of sulfur are needed and used in the body.  However, because sulfur is released from the metabolism (breakdown and use) of protein amino acids, adequate sulfur is usually available.  Sulfur (S) is an essential element for life, and is found in the amino acids cysteine and methionine.

Cysteine, which acts as a cofactor in several body functions, is a precursor to the potent antioxidant glutathione which has the ability to re-activate other antioxidants.  Glutathione is considered the “master antioxidant.”  Methionine is an intermediate in the biosynthesis conversion of several substances, the improper conversion of which elevates homocysteine levels.  Homocysteine levels that are elevated are considered a risk factor for cardiovascular health problems, and are thought may be a factor in contributing to arterial inflammation.

Many trace elements (minerals used in very small amounts) are also present in the body, but their use, function, and need in human nutrition have not been established.

A broad plant-based diet that encompasses a wide variety of fresh fruits and vegetables, legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans), fish and seafood, 100% whole grains, olive oil, nuts, seeds, a select few animal-based foods like fresh eggs, a little cultured nonfat dairy (yogurt), a little soft cheese, occasional fresh meat, and contains very little (if any) refined carbs or sugar-laden foods, and no trans fats or hydrogenated oils, remains the foundation of health.  Such a diet, which basically is a natural blend of the “Mediterranean Diet” with a strong Asian seafood influence, is known as the MediterrAsian Diet.

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• Vitamin History
• What Are Vitamins
• Antioxidants & Free Radicals
• Vitamin Measurements
• Intake References

• Vitamin A
• Beta-carotene
• Vitamin B1
• Vitamin B2
• Vitamin B3
• Vitamin B5
• Vitamin B6
• Vitamin B12
• Folic Acid
• Biotin
• Vitamin C
• Vitamin D
• Vitamin E
• Vitamin K

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Vitamin History

Vitamins are nutrients needed by the human body in relatively small milligram (mg) and microgram (mcg) amounts, but nonetheless are vital for health to thrive and life to exist.

The idea that vitamins existed was first realized by Scottish surgeon James Lind who in 1749 discovered that something in citrus fruits helped prevent “scurvy” (a common deadly condition of the time where the structural connective tissue substance collagen is not properly formed).  Although Dr. Lind’s experiments (which are considered the first controlled and recorded experiments in scientific history) began in 1747 while serving as the ship’s surgeon in the British Royal Navy, they were slow to be recognized and adopted.

It wasn’t until 1795 that limes (which were readily available to the British) became standard issue in the British Royal Navy (and is how the British became known as “limeys”).  Likewise, others in the 1800s and early 1900s began to realize that there was something in certain foods that supported health and life.  In 1906 English biochemist Sir Frederick G. Hopkins called these substances “accessory factors.”

From research that dated back to 1884 involving rice bran and its effect on the condition known as “beriberi” (a deficiency condition of the nervous system), the first water-soluble vitamin was discovered in 1910 by Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki, which was eventually named vitamin B1 (later called thiamin once its chemical composition was determined by India-born British researcher Robert R. Williams, Jr. in 1935).

From research that dated back to 1906, the first fat-soluble vitamin was discovered in 1917 independently by American researchers Elmer McCollum and Thomas Osborne, which was eventually named vitamin A.

In 1912 Polish-born U.S. biochemist Casimir Funk with Sir Frederick Hopkins first formulated the hypothesis of deficiency disease, with Casimir Funk generally credited with being the first to isolate specific vitamins.  It was Casimir Funk (known as the Father of Vitamins) who called these substances “vital amines” and first proposed these substances be named “vitamine” after the Latin word for life “vita,” with the “amine” portion added because it was thought at the time that all these substances contained nitrogen containing amino acids or amines (ammonia derivatives).  When it was realized that they all did not contain nitrogen amines, English biochemist Sir Jack C. Drummond proposed in 1920 that the “e” in amine be dropped to avoid confusion.  From that time on they have been known as vitamins.

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What Are Vitamins

Vitamins are organic chemical substances that naturally occur in food, and since the early 1900s as nutritional supplements (officially classified by the FDA in 1968 as “dietary supplements”).  Vitamins are “organic” because they contain carbon and/or originate from once-living plants or animals, and basically act as catalytic coenzymes which work with the other nutrients required for body function, health and life.

Vitamins cannot be produced by the human body and therefore are classified as “essential” nutrients, thus it is essential that they be consumed regularly so the body can function and health can be maintained.

Vitamins fall into one of two basic categories; Fat-soluble (vitamins A, D, E and K) which require that they be taken with foods that contain some amount of dietary fat to facilitate their uptake, and water-soluble (all of the B-complex vitamins and vitamin C) which require water to be present for their dissolution and uptake.

Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity within the body rather than their structure, and have many diverse biochemical functions.  Vitamins can function as: Hormones (vitamin D); antioxidants (vitamins C, E and beta-carotene); mediators of cell-signaling and regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (vitamin A); function as a “provitamin” (precursor) for the activity of a vitamin (beta-carotene as a precursor of vitamin A activity); function as a “preformed” vitamin that the body converts to vitamin activity (vitamin A and vitamin D3); function as a transitional chemical for the activity of a vitamin (ascorbic acid that possesses vitamin C activity); function as precursors for enzyme cofactor bio-molecules (coenzymes) that help act as catalysts and substrates in cellular metabolism (B-complex vitamins); and function as energy cofactors (vitamin B1 for carbohydrate metabolism).

High dose intakes of the water-soluble vitamins (B-complex and vitamin C) require normal functioning kidneys so the excess can be excreted.  High intakes of fat-soluble vitamins can build up in tissues and cause deleterious health effects if too much are consumed.  Those with compromised kidney function, or any other health condition, should only take vitamin supplements with the guidance of their doctor.  This applies to all vitamin supplements, both fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins.

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Antioxidants & Free Radicals

Some vitamins (vitamins C, E, beta-carotene) have antioxidant abilities, which helps prevent oxidative stress and fight the potential damage done by free radicals.  The Institute of Medicine defines dietary antioxidants in their published book titled Dietary Reference Intakes as:  “A dietary antioxidant is a substance in foods that significantly decreases the adverse effects of reactive species, such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, on normal physiological functions in humans.”

It is believed that high levels of oxidants (highly-reactive oxygen free radical species, aka free radicals) which are produced by oxidative metabolism (oxygen used during cellular metabolism) causes oxidative stress which can cause cell dysfunction and damage to the cells, and as a result may significantly increase or contribute to the risk of chronic degenerative health conditions.  In addition to the vitamins indicated, certain minerals (zinc, selenium, copper, manganese and iron) are thought to also have specific antioxidant characteristics.  Antioxidants may well prove to be the first line of defense against chronic degenerative health conditions, and may fight cellular aging because of their ability to protect cells from free radical damage.

Free radicals are unstable atoms, molecules or ions that lack one or more electron in their structure, which makes them highly reactive.  When they come into contact with other substances within the body they steal electrons from them, which cause the substances to steal electrons themselves.  This sets off a chain reaction that breaks down normal chemical bonds in cells and tissues, interferes with the normal function of enzymes and hormones, and adversely affects DNA.  Antioxidants quell free radical activity by donating electrons, without being reactive themselves, thus stopping the free radical chain reaction.

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Vitamin Measurements

Vitamin amounts are measured by weight in grams (g) (which is 1,000 milligrams), in milligrams (mg) (which is 1,000 micrograms), and in micrograms (mcg).  Some vitamins (A, D and E) are measured by their biological activity in International Units (IU).  The IU measurement is a bit more arbitrary as a form of measure than actual weight because the vitamins that use it are found in different forms, such as retinol, palmitate, and beta-carotene as forms of vitamin A, ergocalciferol (D2) and cholecalciferol (D3) as forms of vitamin D, and mixed tocopherols (alpha, beta, delta and gamma tocopherols) and tocotrienols (and mixed tocotrienols) as forms of vitamin E.

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Intake References

RDA – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Institute of Medicine sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of most healthy adults, is known as the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), and is part of the set of guidelines known as the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).  RDAs are a planning tool as a guideline for amount of nutrient intake.

AI – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Institute of Medicine as adequate for apparently healthy people when an RDA cannot be determined, is known as Adequate Intake (AI), and is part of the set of guidelines known as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).  AIs are an assessment tool.

UL – The highest average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Institute of Medicine that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects in most adults (but increases above the UL may increase potential risk of adverse effects), is known as the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL), and is part of the set of guidelines known as the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).  ULs are an assessment tool.

RDI – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for healthy adults who consume 2,000 to 2,500 calories a day, is referred to on food labels as Percent Daily Value (% DV), and is known as the Reference Daily Intake (RDI) (previously known as the US RDA).  RDIs are a planning tool as a guideline for amount of nutrient intake in relation to the total calories consumed.

ALT – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level commonly suggested for healthy adults by most nutritionally knowledgeable alternative doctors and nutritionists, with such Alternative (ALT) intake levels recognized or believed to have added health benefits.  ALTs are a planning tool as a guideline for amount of nutrient intake.

TOX – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level for adults generally regarded as Toxic (TOX) or believed to produce adverse effects, if known.  TOXs are a guideline of toxic amounts of nutrient intake.

Where an Intake Reference is not indicated, the amount is either not known or has not been established.  However, anything in very large amounts can have deleterious effects (even water, which is probably the most benign thing that is consumed, can cause death if consumed in massive amounts).  All amounts indicated are for healthy adults.  Do not start a supplement regimen without first checking with your doctor.

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Vitamin A

Vitamin A (retinol)  –  Vitamin A (so named because it was the first fat-soluble vitamin discovered) is a preformed fat-soluble vitamin known as retinol from animal foods that converts in the body to vitamin A activity.  Retinyl acetate and retinyl palmitate are the more stable forms of retinol used in vitamin A dietary supplements.  The name “retinol” comes from a form of vitamin A called “retinal” that was discovered to transmit light sensations to the retina portion of the eye, and was determined to be responsible for preventing “night blindness.”  Vitamin A supports: Healthy eyes and vision, mediates cell-signaling, regulates cell and tissue growth and differentiation, bone formation, cell membranes, DNA gene transcription, healthy skin, reproductive function, and the integrity of the immune system.  Unlike the water-soluble form of vitamin A (beta-carotene), fat-soluble vitamin A (retinol) accumulates in body fat tissues and can be toxic in amounts that are significantly above the RDA. 
Deficiency:  Night blindness, dry eyes, skin problems, et al.
Food Sources:  Animal foods, such as egg yolk, butter, cream and vitamin A fortified milk, and especially liver and cod liver oil.
RDA:  3,000 IU of vitamin A per day for adult males, and 2,300 IU of vitamin A per day for adult females. 
UL:  10,000 IU of vitamin A per day for adults. 
ALT:  5,000 IU of vitamin A per day (with about half from beta-carotene). 
TOX:  5,000 IU of vitamin A per day in the elderly has been associated with weak bones.  10,000 IU of vitamin A per day in pregnant women increases the risk of birth defects.  Continued use of 25,000 IU of vitamin A per day can cause liver damage in adults.  Chronic intake of 50,000 IU of vitamin A per day is regarded as toxic in adults (20,000 IU per day is toxic in infants and young children).  Acute toxicity with dire results can occur in adults with a single dose of 2,000,000 IU or more of vitamin A (acute toxicity in infants or young children can occur with a single dose of 25,000 IU per kilogram of body weight).

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Beta-carotene

Beta-carotene –  A water-soluble antioxidant provitamin that converts to vitamin A activity in the body (a provitamin is a precursor that the body transforms into vitamin activity when ingested).  Beta-carotene is perhaps the best known of a group of antioxidant phytochemicals known as carotenoids (“phyto” means plant).  Carotenoids are the brightly colored pigments (such as yellow, red and orange) that are naturally present in nature, primarily in plants but also in such things as egg yolk (as lutein).  More than 600 carotenoids have been indentified, of which about 30 of them have been determined to have provitamin A activity.  All have antioxidant properties, with lycopene (in tomatoes) believed to be the most potent.  Lycopene is unusual in that its antioxidant properties become concentrated when the food source is cooked (which significantly enhances the antioxidants and appeal of tomato paste).  Some of the better known carotenoids include: Lutein, lycopene, zeaxanthin, cryptoxanthin, and alpha-carotene.  Beta-carotene basically does everything that vitamin A does, but in addition also functions as an antioxidant (antioxidants regulate oxidative stress reactions, i.e., fight free radicals and the damage they can do to cells).  Unlike the fat-soluble form of vitamin A (retinol), beta-carotene is generally considered to be non-toxic.  Excess beta-carotene is stored in the liver until needed and may turn the skin (and liver) a yellow/orange color.  No RDA has been established for beta-carotene.  Some alternative health professionals have suggested that 10,000 IU to 25,000 IU of beta-carotene be consumed per day.  However, recent research suggests that large doses of beta-carotene in supplement form may increase the risk of serious deleterious conditions in those who drink alcohol and smoke (an increased intake of vitamin C is thought to help offset this risk).  Some nutritional supplements contain both beta-carotene and the retinol form of vitamin A, however the retinol form usually only makes up about 10-20% of the total vitamin A activity.  There have been no reports of beta-carotene concerns from food, or about the other carotenoids from food, other than the indicated skin (and liver) yellow/orange discoloration which cleared up once the excess consumption of them were discontinued. 
Deficiency:  Night blindness, dry eyes, skin problems, et al.
Food Sources:  Plant foods, such as orange colored vegetables and fruits, and especially sweet potatoes, carrots and carrot juice, pumpkin, butternut squash, spinach (hid by the green chlorophyll content), and cantaloupe. 
RDA:  None established. 
ALT:  Beta-carotene 10,000 IU to 25,000 IU per day, with much lesser amounts of other carotenoids per day such as: Lutein 2-5 mg, lycopene 2-3 mg, zeaxanthin 300 mcg to 6 mg, astaxanthin 1,000 mcg (1 mg), and alpha-carotene 1,000 mcg (1 mg). 
TOX:  Beta-carotene is considered non-toxic but high intakes may turn the skin a yellow/orange color.  High doses of beta-carotene in smokers who drink alcohol may have an increased risk of serious deleterious conditions.  Supplemental amounts of the other carotenoids greater than indicated is ill-advised.  Carotenoids naturally present in food are considered safe (and are thought to have health benefits), but excess intake of certain foods can cause a skin discoloration because of their carotenoid content, such as orange from large amounts of carrot juice and red from the consumption of large quantities of tomato juice (which tends to disappear when excess intake stops).

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Vitamin B1

Note: To prevent a possible imbalance when taking the B-complex vitamins in supplement form it is generally recommended that the entire B-complex be taken in addition to whatever individual B-complex vitamin is taken.  The entire B-complex consists of vitamins B1, B2, B6, B12, niacin, pantothenic acid, folic acid and biotin.

Vitamin B1 (thiamine or thiamin)  –  A water-soluble B-complex vitamin that functions as a coenzyme that supports energy production, carbohydrate metabolism, and nerve function.  Vitamin B1 plays a critical role with magnesium and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the production of cellular energy from food.  Vitamin B1 is so named because it was the first water-soluble vitamin discovered, and became known as thiamine once its chemical composition was established.  Consuming large amounts of tea or coffee (including decaffeinated) has been associated with thiamine depletion.  Since 1943 small amounts of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and iron have been added to milled flour to replace that which is lost during the milling process, with the resulting flour called “enriched flour.”  A fat-soluble form of thiamine known as “benfotiamine” has been used for a degenerative nerve condition (usually in the legs and feet) common in those with blood sugar problems.  Recent research indicates that benfotiamine may also be useful for a condition known as ”uveitis” which is a common inflammatory and painful eye condition that is one of the leading causes of blindness, and is often associated with autoimmune disorders. 
Deficiency:  Degenerative nerve damage, lack of energy, and “beriberi” (a known deficiency condition) that affects the heart, muscles, nerves and digestive system.
Food Sources:  Plant foods, especially whole grains and wheat germ.
RDA:  1.2 mg of vitamin B1 per day for adult males, and 1.1 mg of vitamin B1 per day for adult females. 
ALT:  At least 1.5 mg of vitamin B1 per day; most suggest 25-50 mg of vitamin B1 per day.  150-600 mg per day of benfotiamine has been used for degenerative nerve conditions of the legs and feet (common in those with blood sugar problems), but should only be used with the guidance of a knowledgeable doctor. 
TOX:  No known toxic or adverse effects of thiamine up to 200 mg per day.  Excess water-soluble thiamine is believed to be excreted.  Because it is fat-soluble, it may be possible to get too much benfotiamine and thus should only be used with the guidance of a knowledgeable doctor familiar with what it is being used for. 

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Vitamin B2

Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)  –  A water-soluble B-complex vitamin that functions as a coenzyme that supports energy production, cellular function, vision, and antioxidant activity.  Vitamin B2 participates in the enzymatic use of glutathione, a major cellular antioxidant, via the glutathione oxidation-reduction reaction (glutathione redox cycle) – glutathione is known as the “master antioxidant.”  Vitamin B2 became known as riboflavin once its chemical composition was established.  It is riboflavin supplementation that is responsible for the harmless bright yellow color of urine. 
Deficiency:  Mouth lesions, skin and scalp problems (such as seborrhea dermatitis), and possibly cataract formation. 
Food Sources:  Widely distributed in small amounts in many foods, and is especially in milk, eggs, almonds and spinach. 
RDA:  1.3 mg of vitamin B2 per day for adult males, and 1.1 mg of vitamin B2 per day for adult females.
ALT:  At least 1.5 mg of vitamin B2 per day; most suggest 25-50 mg of vitamin B2 per day. 
TOX:  No toxic or adverse effects of high riboflavin intake in humans are known.  Excess is believed to be excreted.

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Vitamin B3

Vitamin B3-1 (niacin) Vitamin B3-2 (niacinamide)  –  A water-soluble B-complex vitamin that functions as a coenzyme that is involved in energy production, lipid metabolism, oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions, is a functional part of non-redox coenzyme reactions (such as NAD and NADP), plays a role in intracellular calcium release regulation, and appears to function in DNA repair and stress responses, cell-signaling (communication between cells), DNA transcription (copying), apoptosis (programmed cell death), and cell differentiation (cell change for specific functions that tend to decrease rapid cell division, which suggests a possible role in the prevention of certain conditions where rapid cell division is an integral part).  Niacin (nicotinic acid), which, in supplement form tends to cause an itchy skin flush, has been used to help control cholesterol levels but at intake levels that do so has been shown to adversely affect the liver, with time-release forms most easily causing liver damage.  Niacinamide (nicotinamide), which is a derivative of niacin, has many of the same health benefits as niacin (but not cholesterol lowering) but does not cause a skin flush.  In supplement form, niacinamide is generally better tolerated than niacin.  Niacinamide (but not niacin) is thought to be useful for improving the memory (possibly even combating memory loss associated with aging), is thought to help support the immune system by boosting the number and effectiveness of neutrophils (white blood cells), is believed to help support joint structures and a sense of balance, helps support overcoming fatigue and muscle weakness, and may help relieve exercise-induced muscle soreness in amounts up to 1,500 mg per day in divided doses of 250 mg each, with the total daily intake amount depending upon the severity of the muscle soreness (Reference: Alternatives, Feb. 2009, Vol. 12, No. 20, and Alternatives, Nov. 1997, Vol. 7, No. 5, which are based on the work conducted by niacinamide research pioneer Dr. William Kaufman).  However, a high intake of niacinamide may increase homocysteine levels due to it using up methyl donors, which may negatively impact cardiovascular health.  When consumed in the diet, the amino acid tryptophan (abundant in fish and seafood, poultry, soybeans, and other protein-based foods) can be converted to niacin in the body with the assistance of vitamin B6.  In spite of similar names, nicotinic acid (niacin) and nicotinamide (niacinamide) are not related to nicotine that is present in tobacco. 
Deficiency:  Photosensitive dermatitis, diarrhea and dementia, which are symptoms of “pellagra” (a known deficiency condition).
Food Sources:  Tuna, salmon, chicken, turkey, legumes and seeds, with fortified cereals containing the most niacin.  In mature grains, such as corn and wheat, niacin is bound to sugar molecules, which significantly decreases niacin’s bioavailability. 
RDA:  16 mg of niacin per day for adult males, and 14 mg of niacin per day for adult females. 
UL:  35 mg of niacin per day. 
ALT:  20 mg per day for niacin; 50 mg per day for niacinamide.
TOX:  Common side effects of niacin in supplement form are skin flush and upset stomach, and sometimes skin rash and dry skin.  Large doses of niacin impairs glucose tolerance (which is bad news for those with blood sugar problems) and causes liver damage, including elevated liver enzymes and jaundice with intakes as low as 750 mg per day of immediate-release niacin, and hepatitis with intakes as little as 500 mg per day of time-release niacin.  The people most susceptible to the adverse effects of high doses of niacin are believed to be those with a history of liver problems, blood sugar problems, GI tract problems, joint problems, heartbeat problems, inflammatory bowel problems, recurring headaches, and alcoholism.  Niacin (but not niacinamide) has been used to help control blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels with a dose of niacin of 2-3 grams (2,000-3,000 mg) per day.  However, it is such high doses of niacin (especially with concurrent statin drug use) that greatly increases the risk of liver damage, cardiomyopathy (heart muscle damage), and rhabdomyolysis (painful muscle wasting where muscle cells are broken down, releasing muscle enzymes and electrolytes into the blood that can lead to kidney failure).  Unlike niacin, niacinamide is believed to be non-toxic in amounts up to 1,500 mg per day when taken in divided doses of 250 mg each, taken 2-3 hours apart, but such a high daily dose may use up methyl donors and thus cause an increase in homocysteine levels which may negatively impact cardiovascular health.  High dose niacin and niacinamide should only be taken under doctor supervision.

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Vitamin B5

Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid)  –  A water-soluble B-complex coenzyme vitamin that supports energy production and nerve function, is a functional part of CoA and acyl-carrier proteins, and is involved in fatty acid synthesis and metabolism.  Vitamin B5 is usually referred to as pantothenic acid, its chemical name.  Pantothenic acid is a vital component of coenzyme A (CoA), which is required for chemical reactions that generate energy from food, for the synthesis of essential fats, cholesterol, steroid hormones and the vitally important neurotransmitter acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter is a chemical that is released by a nerve cell that transmits an impulse to another nerve cell or structure such as an organ or muscle), and is involved in the oxidation of pyruate (a ketone body used in energy production in the Krebs cycle, aka the citric acid cycle).  The Krebs cycle (which is the fundamental source of energy production in nearly all cells in the human body) is a complex series of chemical reactions that takes place within cells, where oxygen is utilized as part of the cellular respiration process, that converts biochemical energy from nutrients into the production of the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and also carbon dioxide as a waste product.  While ATP is primarily derived from the metabolic breakdown of glucose (known as glycolysis) that originated from ingested carbohydrates, dietary fats and protein can also be used as energy sources.  Pyruvate is produced during the metabolism of carbohydrates and is an integral part of glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate that ultimately results in the release of usable energy in the form of ATP from the Krebs cycle.  The Krebs cycle takes place inside the cell’s mitochondria (the dynamic cellular “power plant” organelle), of which there are several mitochondria within each cell – all of which produce ATP and power cellular function.  Pantothenic acid works closely with the other B-complex vitamins in energy production (and several other functions).  Pantothenic acid plays a principal role in acetylated protein reactions (acyl-carrier proteins or acetylation) that affects the physical structure of proteins and alters the activity of peptide hormones (which are hormones made from protein, such as insulin, as opposed to steroid hormones which are made from cholesterol).  Acetylated proteins play a role in cell division and DNA replication, affects gene expression (DNA coded information that is transcribed and translated to proteins and other cell structures such as RNA), and plays a central role in cell-signaling (communication between cells).  Pantothenic acid is required for the synthesis of fatty acids (a component of lipids, which are fatty acids, phospholipids, triglycerides, and sterols such as cholesterol), which are needed for such things as part of the protective myelin sheaths that cover and insulate nerves, and as an important and protective part of the structure of cell membranes.  Pantothenic acid in supplement form is commonly seen as pantothenol (a more stable derivative form which is rapidly converted to pantothenic acid in the body).  Also seen in supplements are the calcium pantothenate form and the sodium pantothenate form.  A non-vitamin derivative of pantothenic acid known as pantethine has been used (principally in Europe and Japan) for its cholesterol-lowering effect at doses of 300 mg taken three times a day (for a total of 900 mg per day) under doctor supervision.  Pantethine is generally thought to be well-tolerated up to 1,200 mg per day but can cause gastric upset, and with continuous long-term use may possibly affect the health and function of the liver similar to high-dose niacin and statin drugs (but, nonetheless, is seen as a possible better alternative to the use of high-dose niacin and statin drugs).
Deficiency:  Peripheral nerve damage manifesting as numbness and tingling (and sometimes pain and a burning sensation) in the hands and feet.  A gross deficiency is rare and usually only seen in starvation or severe malnutrition/absorption conditions. 
Food Sources:  Avocado, yogurt, chicken, sweet potato, milk, egg yolk and legumes. 
RDA:  None established. 
AI:  5 mg of pantothenic acid per day. 
RDI:  5 mcg of pantothenic acid per day. 
ALT:  5 mg of pantothenic acid per day, up to 50 mg of pantothenic acid per day. 
TOX:  Pantothenic acid is generally considered non-toxic but adverse reactions have occurred with high doses in some people, with gastric upset and diarrhea being the most common side effect.  In an unusual situation, 300 mg of pantothenic acid taken with 10 mg of biotin a day for two months is known to have caused a life-threatening condition affecting the membranes that surround the heart and lungs of an elderly woman (a condition known as eosinophilic pleuropericardial effusion).  The non-vitamin pantethine derivative form of pantothenic acid should only be taken under the guidance of a qualified healthcare practitioner.

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Vitamin B6

Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)  –  A water-soluble B-complex coenzyme vitamin that supports the metabolism of protein amino acids and glycogen (stored glucose), modulates the actions of steroid hormones decreasing their effects, supports the immune system, and helps regulate homocysteine blood levels.  There are six chemical forms of vitamin B6 used in the body, with pyridoxine being the source of vitamin B6 found in supplements.  Vitamin B6 plays a vital role in over 100 enzymes that catalyze essential chemical reactions in the human body.  Vitamin B6 functions as a coenzyme that catalyzes the release of glucose from glycogen stored in muscles, in reactions used to generate glucose from amino acids, in the synthesis of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine and gamma-aminobutyric (GABA), in the synthesis of heme (the iron-containing component of hemoglobin, which is the oxygen-transporting molecule of the red blood cells), is involved in the synthesis of the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, assists the amino acid tryptophan convert to niacin in the body, works with folic acid and vitamin B12 to help regulate homocysteine levels in the blood (homocysteine is an intermediate byproduct of methionine metabolism, raised blood levels of which have been associated with an increased risk for cardiovascular problems), and plays a role in inhibiting steroid hormones, thus decreasing their effects, which suggests that vitamin B6 status may have implications for conditions affected by steroid hormones (such as breast and prostate problems). 
Deficiency:  Disorders of amino acid metabolism and in the systems where vitamin B6 acts as a coenzyme, elevated blood levels of homocysteine, neurologic symptoms such as irritability, depression, confusion, and even convulsions with a severe deficiency (which is uncommon), and inflammation of the tongue and ulcers in and around the mouth. 
Food Sources:  Potato (with skin), chicken, salmon, spinach, banana and turkey. 
RDA:  1.7 mg of vitamin B6 per day for adult males, and 1.5 mg of vitamin B6 per day for adult females. 
UL:  100 mg of vitamin B6 per day. 
ALT:  2.0 mg of vitamin B6 per day, up to 75 mg of vitamin B6 per day. 
TOX:  Supplemental amounts of 500 mg or more of vitamin B6 per day can cause sensory neuropathy, which is characterized by pain and numbness in the feet.  Long-term intake amounts in excess of 200 mg of vitamin B6 per day may eventually lead to peripheral nerve damage.  The UL of 100 mg of vitamin B6 per day is thought to provide an adequate safety margin, especially since there are no known health benefits above that intake level.

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Vitamin B12

Vitamin B12 (cobalamin, cyanocobalamin)  –  A water-soluble B-complex coenzyme vitamin that supports the nervous system, red blood cells, energy production, brain function (may help prevent memory problems), helps regulate homocysteine blood levels (with the assistance of folic acid and vitamin B6), and helps prevent canker sores (with 1,000 mcg taken sublingual at bedtime).  Vitamin B12 has the largest and most complex chemical structure of all the vitamins, with it being unique in that it contains a mineral, cobalt, hence its chemical name cobalamin.  The form of vitamin B12 used in most supplements is cyanocobalamin, which is readily converted to vitamin B12 activity in the body.  Vitamin B12 is required for the function of the folic acid dependent enzyme (methionine synthase) that is required for the metabolism of homocysteine into the amino acid methionine, with this biological process known as methylation.  Homocysteine is a sulfur intermediate byproduct of methionine metabolism that can undergo auto-oxidation in the blood, produce free radicals that can damage the endothelial cells that line the interior of the arteries and promote oxidation of LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, and is especially prevalent in those with kidney problems.  Methylation is used in many biological reactions, including a number of sites within DNA and RNA.  Methylation of DNA is currently thought to possibly be an important aspect in the prevention of certain serious conditions, while it helps prevent the accumulation of homocysteine in the blood which is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular problems.  In addition to the vitamin B12 methyl donor (methylcobalamin, an especially active form), other phytochemicals that supply methyl donor groups include dimethylglycine (DMG) and trimethylglycine (TMG) which also contribute to the methylation process.  Vitamin B12 plays an important role in the production of energy from fats and protein, and is required for the synthesis of the oxygen-carrying pigment in red blood cells hemoglobin.  There is a significant relationship between B12 and the B-complex vitamin folic acid (the taking of supplemental folic acid can mask a vitamin B12 deficiency).  Food and supplement amounts of vitamin B12 are especially difficult to absorb as we age, with sublingual supplement forms that dissolve under the tongue thought to help overcome this difficulty. 
Deficiency:  About 10% – 15% of those over the age of 60 are thought to be vitamin B12 deficient.  Decreased stomach acid production (necessary for vitamin B12 release from food) and the taking of gastric acid inhibitors (such as Pepsid, Tagamet, Tums, and Zantac) decrease vitamin B12 absorption.  A vitamin B12 deficiency can lead to anemia (low or hemoglobin-deficient red blood cells), specifically pernicious anemia (an autoimmune condition which is actually the end-stage of the destruction of stomach cells that produce gastric acid and enzymes necessary for the release of vitamin B12 from food), and megaloblastic anemia (a condition where both vitamin B12 and folic acid are rendered unavailable to participate in DNA synthesis, which causes the bone marrow to produce immature and hemoglobin-poor red blood cells).  Vitamin B12 deficiency is known to damage the protective myelin sheath that covers the cranial nerves of the brain (which can lead to memory problems), and the spinal and peripheral nerves (leading to numbness and tingling sometimes in the arms and hands but usually in the legs and feet that can cause difficulty in balance and walking) which is thought to be a contributory factor (along with peripheral artery problems) in the shuffle-walk seen in the elderly.  An uncorrected vitamin B12 deficiency can cause irreversible nerve damage.  Gastrointestinal (GI) problems can cause vitamin B12 deficiency (and other nutrient deficiencies).  Common GI tract problems include gastritis (which is thought to affect 10% – 30% of those over the age of 60) and malabsorption syndrome (such as celiac condition, i.e., an abnormal immune reaction to gluten, a protein found in wheat and related grains such as rye and barley, that damages the nutrient-absorbing villi of the small intestine causing a disruption in nutrient uptake that results in nutrient deficiencies, diarrhea and anemia).  (See “Folic Acid” listing below.)
Food Sources:  Animal foods and seafood, especially clams, mussels, crab, salmon and beef.  There is no vitamin B12 in plant foods, thus it is prudent for strict vegetarians (vegans) to take vitamin B12 in supplement form.
RDA:  2.4 mcg of vitamin B12 per day.
ALT:  It is generally recommended that those who are 50 years of age or older should take vitamin B12 in dietary supplement form of at least 100 mcg per day, up to 500-1,000 mcg per day.  In several clinical studies, 500 mcg per day of folic acid decreased homocysteine blood levels by 25%, and further reduced homocysteine blood levels by 32% with the addition of 500 mcg per day of vitamin B12 (which demonstrates the synergy of vitamin B12 and folic acid).  However, it is presently unknown if decreasing homocysteine blood levels will translate to a reduction in the risk for cardiovascular problems (which is suspected), with studies continuing.  Recent clinical studies have demonstrated the prevention of canker sores (recurrent aphthous stomatitis) with the sublingual taking at bedtime of 1,000 mcg of vitamin B12.  Sublingual vitamin B12 is believed to be the best supplement form for uptake.
TOX:  No known toxic or adverse effects have been associated with large doses of vitamin B12 intakes up to 1,000 mcg (1 mg) per day in healthy people.  Because of its stimulating effect, taking B12 too close to bedtime may interfere with sleep.  Excess supplemental B12 intakes that are above the RDA may cause skin rash and other skin problems in some people.  In rare occurrences excess intakes of B12 in supplement form may overly stimulate nerve transmissions which may produce an irregular heartbeat, and because of its ability to stimulate cell growth it may not distinguish between stimulating normal cell growth and stimulating abnormal cell growth which can be highly problematic. 

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Folic Acid

Folic Acid (folate, vitamin B9)  –  A water-soluble B-complex coenzyme vitamin that is vital for DNA and RNA synthesis, prevents neural tube birth defects (with adequate daily intakes at least one month before and one month after conception), prevents megaloblastic anemia (a condition where both folic acid and vitamin B12 are rendered unavailable to participate in DNA synthesis, which causes the bone marrow to produce enlarged, immature and hemoglobin-poor red blood cells), and works with vitamin B6 and especially vitamin B12 to help regulate homocysteine blood levels.  Although the terms are often used interchangeably, folate is actually the naturally occurring form found in food, while the more commonly used term folic acid is actually the chemical derivative form used in supplements (with the folic acid supplement form being about 70% more bioavailable than folate).  Folic acid (with the assistance of vitamin B12) is required for the metabolism of homocysteine into the amino acid methionine, a process known as methylation.  Methylation is used in many biological reactions, including within DNA and RNA.  Methylation of DNA is currently thought to possibly be an important aspect in the prevention of certain serious conditions, while it helps prevent the accumulation of homocysteine in the blood which is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular problems.  Elevated homocysteine blood levels with decreased folic acid and vitamin B12 levels have been associated with memory problems, especially in older adults.
Deficiency:  Folic acid has an interrelationship with vitamin B12.  A folic acid deficiency can mask a vitamin B12 deficiency, which is relatively common in those over 60.  Megaloblastic anemia (which is where oxygen-carrying red blood cells are not properly formed and manifests as weakness, fatigue and shortness of breath) can be caused by folic acid deficiency and also by vitamin B12 deficiency.  Adequate supplementation with folic acid can restore normal red blood cell formation in megaloblastic anemia, however, if vitamin B12 deficiency is the actual underlying cause of the anemia then the vitamin B12 deficiency will continue despite the resolution of the anemia by folic acid.  An uncorrected vitamin B12 deficiency can cause irreversible nerve damage.  A folic acid deficiency also manifests as elevated homocysteine blood levels.  Because the taking of folic acid supplements can mask a vitamin B12 deficiency, it is considered important to take vitamin B12 daily (especially in sublingual form) when taking folic acid supplements (see “Vitamin B12” listing above).
Food Sources:  Plant foods, especially leafy green vegetables (i.e., “foliage” which is the basis for the name folate), asparagus, spinach, citrus fruit juices, tomato juice, legumes (beans, peanuts, peas, soybeans, and especially lentils, garbanzo beans and lima beans), and “fortified” cereals.  “Fortification” of certain processed foods was mandated by the U.S. government to restore certain nutrients lost in processing, beginning in 1943 with small amounts of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and iron added to milled flour products (such as “enriched” white bread), with folic acid fortification added to certain foods beginning in 1998 for women of childbearing age to prevent neural tube birth defects in their babies, which has been credited with an approximate 50% reduction of such birth defects seen in the U.S.  Because of this and several studies, folic acid is now considered critical for normal embryonic development.
RDA:  400 mcg of folic acid per day for adults.
UL:  1,000 mcg (1 mg) of folic acid per day for adults.
ALT:  800 mcg of folic acid per day for adults.
TOX:  5,000 mcg (5 mg) of folic acid per day has produced irreversible neurologic damage.  The naturally occurring folate in food has no known toxicity.  Folic acid in supplement form has produced adverse effects when taken with the regular consumption of alcoholic beverages, and at high intakes of supplemental folic acid even without alcoholic beverage consumption.  Low folate intake (from food) with concurrent intake of alcohol (two or more drinks per day) is associated with an increased incidence of serious colorectal problems.  It is known that alcohol interferes with the normal uptake of folate (in food), and also with folic acid (in supplement form or in folic acid fortified foods).  It is currently thought that the intake of 600 mcg per day of folic acid may help reduce the risk of certain serious breast conditions, but not in those women who consume two or more alcoholic drinks a day.  It is believed that two or more alcoholic drinks per day doubles the risk of serious colorectal problems, while 650 mcg of folic acid per day is thought to possibly help nullify that increased risk.  However, it is believed that high doses of folic acid of 1,000 mcg (1 mg) or more a day may increase the risk of serious prostate problems, and may also accelerate tumor growth.  Therefore, it would seem prudent to not consume more than 800 mcg of folic acid per day from all sources combined (in supplement form and from fortified foods), with no such restrictions in consuming folate that naturally occurs in food.

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Biotin

Biotin (vitamin B7)  –  A water-soluble B-complex coenzyme vitamin that supports energy production and healthy skin, hair and nails.  When biotin attaches to certain protein molecules (in a process known as histone biotinylation) it plays an important role in regulating DNA transcription (copying the DNA code), replication and cellular proliferation.  As a cellular enzyme cofactor (coenzyme), biotin is essential in several metabolic reactions, such as fatty acid synthesis, regulating fatty acid oxidation in the mitochondria (the cell’s energy-producing power plant), is critical in the formation of glucose (gluconeogenesis) from amino acids and fatty acids, and supports cholesterol metabolism.  Biotin helps stimulate the synthesis of the stored form of glucose (glycogen) and helps stimulate the secretion of insulin from the pancreas.
Deficiency:  Although very rare, an overt deficiency of biotin includes skin and scalp dermatitis, hair loss, brittle nails, a characteristic skin rash around the face and in the genital area, and neurologic symptoms that can affect the mental state (such as depression, lethargy and even hallucination) and numbness and tingling of the extremities (especially fingers and toes).
Food Sources:  Biotin is widely distributed in food but generally in small amounts, with egg yolk and liver being the richest sources, and is fairly abundant in salmon, avocados, pork and whole wheat.
RDA:  None established.
AI:  30 mcg of biotin per day for adults.  It is believed that marginal (i.e., subclinical) biotin deficiency may be relatively common in pregnancy and may be a factor in abnormal embryo and/or fetus development that may result in certain types of birth defects.  Thus, in addition to 400 mcg of folic acid a day before and during pregnancy, it is generally thought prudent to also include 30 mcg a day of biotin.
ALT:  300 mcg of biotin per day for adults.
TOX:  No known adverse or toxic effects of biotin up to 10,000 mcg (10 mg) per day in most people.  However, in an unusual situation, 10 mg of biotin taken with 300 mg of pantothenic acid taken a day for two months is known to have caused a life-threatening condition affecting the membranes that surround the heart and lungs of an elderly woman (a condition known as eosinophilic pleuropericardial effusion).  There are no known toxic effects of biotin from food, and there appears to be no biological reason to exceed 300 mcg per day of biotin in supplement form for those in normal health who do not have a predisposing hereditary caused biotin deficiency (which should only be treated by a medical doctor).

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Vitamin C

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)  –  A water-soluble antioxidant vitamin that supports the normal function and structure of the vascular system (blood vessels), immune system, collagen production and repair, joint and bone health, gum health, eye health and brain function, enhances iron absorption, may help regulate blood cholesterol levels, and is especially beneficial for the cardiovascular system.  Ascorbic acid is the chemical name for vitamin C.  Ascorbic acid from plant sources (typically derived from corn) is the natural source of vitamin C used in some supplements, however there appears to be no difference in vivo (in the human body) between natural-source vitamin C and chemical ascorbic acid.  Vitamin C is vital in collagen synthesis (formation).  Collagen is an important structural component of blood vessels, tendons, ligaments and bone – it is the cement that holds the body together.  Vitamin C is important in the synthesis of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, which is one of the neurotransmitters that are critical for brain function and which affect mood.  Vitamin C is required for the synthesis of carnitine which is essential for the transport of fatty acids within the cell for conversion of fat into energy by the cell’s mitochondria (the energy-producing organelles within each cell, commonly referred to as the cell’s “power plant,” which is the seat of metabolic energy).  Vitamin C is a highly effective antioxidant, protecting such things as proteins, carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) from damage by free radicals and reactive oxygen species generated during normal metabolism and also from exposure to environmental toxins and pollutants (such as cigarette smoke).  Vitamin C reinvigorates other antioxidants, especially revitalizing vitamin E antioxidant activity.  Vitamin C and vitamin E have a strong synergy together, especially benefiting the vascular system.  Vitamin C is considered the most vascular-healthy nutrient there is.  Vitamin C has a strong synergy with certain cardiovascular-healthy bioflavonoids, such as citrus bioflavonoid complex (containing hesperidin, naringin and eriocitrin) found in citrus fruits, rose hips (technically not a bioflavonoid itself but has bioflavonoid activity in addition to having the highest concentration of vitamin C and is the edible seed pod portion of roses not typically seen due to pruning), quercetin (which is thought to have antihistamine properties and is abundant in the skin of red apples and red onions), and rutin (abundant in buckwheat, is a quercetin glycoside, i.e., quercetin bound to sugar molecules, that is thought to help reduce capillary fragility, especially associated with hemorrhoids).  Vitamin C helps support normal blood pressure, and also helps support exercise-induced muscle fatigue recovery.  Vitamin C, especially with rose hips, has a strong synergy with the essential mineral magnesium.
Deficiency:  Overt vitamin C deficiency results in “scurvy” a potentially fatal condition (unless corrected) where collagen production is disrupted and manifests as subcutaneous hemorrhage (bleeding into the skin giving a bruised appearance, and bleeding from mucous membranes), loss of dental cement resulting in spongy gums and loose teeth, and impaired wound healing.  In addition to bleeding gums and being a contributory factor in weak bones and joints, minimal vitamin C intake of long duration results in subclinical scurvy (aka “sub-scurvy”) which weakens the blood vessels by lessening their structural integrity making them more susceptible to damage and dystrophic calcification.  Recent research points to the structural weakening of the arteries from long-standing sub-scurvy as the precursor to damage of the endothelial cells that line the arteries (caused by unbalanced calcium metabolism), which leads to dystrophic calcification.  It is not completely certain what role a deficiency of bioflavonoids (the plant pigments largely responsible for the color of fruits, flowers, vegetables, beans, seeds and certain grains) may play, but because it is generally thought that they exert a beneficial impact on health they therefore are important to include in the diet primarily by consuming a varied diet based on plant foods.
Food Sources:  Plant foods, especially citrus fruits and their juice, red bell peppers, strawberries and broccoli.
RDA:  90 mg of vitamin C per day for adult males, and 75 mg of vitamin C per day for adult females (amounts of 10-35 mg per day are thought to prevent/remedy scurvy).  The RDA for smokers is 125 mg of vitamin C per day for adult males, and 110 mg of vitamin C per day for adult females.
UL:  2,000 mg of vitamin C per day for adults.
ALT:  400 mg of vitamin C (which is thought adequate to completely saturate cells) to 1,000-6,000 mg of vitamin C per day (which is thought to take on a clinical role rather than just a nutritional role at such intake levels).  Because of its beneficial impact on vascular health, vitamin C is believed to have a profoundly beneficial impact on cardiovascular health – especially when vitamin C is taken with the heart-healthy essential mineral magnesium.  A new form of vitamin C (called “Lypo-Spheric Vitamin C”), which is said to have “Maximized Bio-Availability” (unsubstaniated), is nothing more than vitamin C blended with phospholipids (the type of fat-like lipid that is found in soy lecithin), and in use has been found to cause or increase GI tract distress (manifesting as diarrhea), may be an endocrine disruptor because of its soy-based phytoestrogen content, and may cause or contribute to skin eruptions in some people (part of the problem may be that it is taken on an empty stomach and it contains 12% alcohol).  Doctor administered high-dose intravenous (IV) administration of 10-100 grams (10,000 mg to 100,000 mg) of vitamin C has been used as an adjunct to certain therapies and infections, and to help offset exposure to or buildup of certain toxins.  Such IV administered vitamin C is thought may have abnormal cell growth cytotoxic effects (while not affecting normal cells), and may help reduce inflammation markers (such as those assoicated with cardiovascular, breast and prostate problems).  While promising, the use of IV administered vitamin C remains controversial and not fully scientifically substantiated at this time.  (Reference: “Vitamin C, Infectious Diseases, & Toxins” by Thomas E. Levy, M.D., J.D.; and “Effect of High-Dose Intravenous Vitamin C on Inflammation…” Journal of Translational Medicine, Sept. 11, 2012, Vol. 10, page 189) 
TOX:  Oral vitamin C intake is generally considered safe up to 10,000 mg (10 grams) per day for adults in good health.  High oral doses of vitamin C may cause gastric upset or diarrhea, which can generally be avoided if intakes are increased very gradually and taken in divided doses spread throughout the day.  It is generally recommended that those predisposed to oxalate kidney stone formation avoid high-dose vitamin C intakes.  At one time it was thought that it was prudent to gradually reduce high oral intakes of vitamin C that have been taken for a long duration to prevent the possibility of a rebound-type effect (commonly referred to as “rebound scurvy”).  However, research has failed to document that this actually occurs with the discontinuance of high doses of vitamin C, and the anecdotal reports of “rebound scurvy” are believed to be scientifically unfounded.  On the other hand, gradually discontinuing high doses of vitamin C that has been taken for a long duration is not known to cause any harm.

One of the many things that vitamin C does is to support the normal function of the immune system.  Research by Dr. Linus Pauling, and by other researchers more recently, has shown that vitamin C supplementation stimulates the production and concentration of certain immune system antibodies in the blood, while at the same time preventing the seasonal (Winter) decline of certain other antibodies, thus supporting how the immune system functions.  Regular hand washing and “PARSNIP” may also help to prevent the spread of seasonal conditions.  PARSNIP is an acronym for the Prevention And Reduction of Seriously Nasty Infectious Pathogens, which is the rationale for reconsidering the social convention of hand shaking as a greeting, especially during the Winter or during outbreaks of potentially deadly conditions such as H1N1.  Perhaps just a simple greeting of “PARSNIP” would be a better alternative, which also serves to let the other person know that you respect their health.  Just saying “PARSNIP” shows that you are aware and care.

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Vitamin D

Vitamin D (cholecalciferol, ergocalciferol)  –  A fat-soluble pro-hormone (misnamed as a vitamin) that assists in the absorption of calcium and other minerals, supports bone mineralization, supports the immune system, and supports cardiovascular health.  (A pro-hormone has no hormone activity itself, but is converted in the body to a molecule that does.)  Vitamin D affects the uptake and function of minerals, especially the minerals calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, et al.  Too little vitamin D has a negative impact on the uptake of calcium and magnesium, while too much vitamin D can contribute to dystrophic calcification and can induce a magnesium deficiency.  The hormone molecule of vitamin D is 25-hydroxyvitamin D, aka 25(OH)D, and 1alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D, aka 1,25(OH2)D, which are blood biomarkers used to evaluate vitamin D status in the body – with 25(OH)D being the marker to determine the vitamin D level in the blood (aka: calcidiol blood test).  The most beneficial vitamin D blood level range is currently thought to be 30-40 nanograms per milliliter of blood (30-40 ng/ml), with 40 ng/ml generally considered optimal (30-40 ng/ml = 75-100 nmol/L).  It is currently thought that a total daily intake of 2,000 IU of vitamin D will generally raise blood levels to approximately 40-60 ng/ml, and such blood levels may significantly reduce the risk of certain forms of breast and colorectal problems (Reference: Annals of Epidemiology, 2009, #19, pages 468-483).  Low blood levels of vitamin D (15-30 ng/ml), and especially very low blood levels (less than 15 ng/ml), have recently been thought to be linked to poor cardiovascular health and may carry with it a greater risk of heart and blood vessel problems (Reference: Intermountain Medical Center Research Team, Salt Lake City, Utah, as reported by NaturalHealthScienceNews.org, Feb. 6, 2010).  Recent research appears to have uncovered a positive association between vitamin D blood levels and dystrophic calcification in the carotid artery and aorta of the subjects tested (Reference: The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, Vol. 95, No. 3, pages 1076-1083, Mar. 2010).  Vitamin D appears to have a U-shaped curve in regards to its effects, that is, too little or too much appear to have negative health consequences (Reference: University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Health and Medical Services; ”Vitamin D: Too Much Can Be As Unhealthy As Too Little” reported in Medical News Today, May 30, 2012, published in The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism).  Skin exposure to ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, specifically the UVB rays, stimulates cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) production, while it is UVA radiation that is most dangerous to the skin.  Vitamin D3 is naturally found in fish oil, and is the form most commonly used in dietary supplements.  Ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) is formed in plants exposed to sunlight and is a less active form.  Vitamin D3 is known to be at least three times more potent than vitamin D2.  Vitamin D supports normal bone density and strength, helps regulate at least 50 genes in tissues, is involved in cell differentiation (cell change from a non-specific generalized form to a specialized form that is specific for a particular tissue, organ or other body part that in so doing tends to decrease overly rapid cell division, which suggests a role in the prevention of conditions where rapid cell division occurs), is believed to help support cardiovascular health by helping to prevent dystrophic calcification (calcium deposits in soft tissues) if the intake amount is not too little (less than 800 IU per day) or too much (more than 2,000 IU per day) on an ongoing daily basis, and is believed to act as an immune system modulator in certain autoimmune responses by modulating T-cell response (such as where insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas are attacked and destroyed by immune system T-cells, where myelin-producing cells of the central nervous system are attacked and destroyed, and where collagen-producing cells of joints are attacked and destroyed).  It is now thought that vitamin D supports the healthy function of the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas and thus may play a role in correcting the main defect in certain conditions (Reference: “Super Vitamin…” by Dr. Allen Spreen, healthiertalk.com, July 30, 2011).  Vitamin D supports the immune system by activating infection-fighting T-cells, and is believed to be useful for common seasonal infections typical in Winter.  It is thought that when a T-cell recognizes a foreign invader, such as bacteria or viruses, it sends activating signals to the vitamin D receptor gene which stimulates the production of a protein (known as the PLC-gamma 1 protein) that triggers the T-cell’s ability to fight the infection.  Adequate amounts of vitamin D are associated with a reduced risk of bone fracture, and health issues that can affect the breasts, prostate, and GI tract (especially the colorectal region).  Researchers have recently discovered that vitamin D3 appears to inhibit both the production and function of a specific protein identified as cMYC (which is known to drive abnormal cell division), as well as to stimulate production of a natural antagonist of cMYC known as MXD1.  (Reference: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, McGill University, Canada, May 2013.)  Inadequate Intake (less than 600 IU per day) or Excess Intake (more than 2,000 IU per day on an ongoing basis) of vitamin D can mobilize calcium from bones (weakening them), causing excess calcium to enter the bloodstream (called hypercalcemia), which strongly contributes to unbalanced calcium metabolism and dystrophic calcification (calcium deposits), especially in the cardiovascular system and kidneys.  Vitamin D is known as the “sunshine vitamin,” with sunlight interacting with the skin surface to produce it.  Medically supervised exposure to ultraviolet radiation (or sunlight exposure for about 10 minutes a day) is known as “phototherapy” (or light therapy) and is used for certain skin conditions, such as psoriasis, and may be beneficial for skin “barnacles” (benign seborrhea keratosis) common in older adults who have limited exposure to sunshine, not to be confused with precancerous actinic keratosis which is caused by excess sun exposure that has occurred over many years, with this commonly known as “sun damage.”  Skin cells that have sun damage have been known to improve with topical applications of coconut oil and also with topical Manuka honey.
Deficiency:  Lack of adequate vitamin D causes “rickets” (abnormal bone formation due to lack of proper bone mineralization), especially in children, and in adults causes soft bones, myopathy (muscle weakness), muscle cramps (especially of the legs and feet), and heartbeat arrhythmias (irregular heartbeat) – due to improper calcium use.  Lack of vitamin D causes the parathyroid glands to secrete an increase in parathyroid hormone (known to be critical for the metabolism of the major bone minerals calcium and phosphorus) which results in increased bone resorption (breakdown of calcium phosphate and deposits calcium into the bloodstream), weakening bones.  Lack of vitamin D contributes to muscle and heart weakness, especially noticeable in the elderly and infants, because its unavailability prevents its normal interaction with the mineral calcium (to produce normal muscle contractions) and with the mineral magnesium (to produce normal muscle relaxation).  Ironically, too much vitamin D can also cause weak bones (by mobilizing calcium from bone), and heart and muscle weakness (by depleting magnesium that is needed for normal heart and muscle function).  Risk factors that can cause a vitamin D deficiency include: Dark skin (less able to produce vitamin D from sunlight), limited exposure to sunlight (5-10 minutes exposure, three times a week, is generally considered adequate to prevent a vitamin D deficiency with minimal risk of sun damage to the skin), aging (the ability of older adults to produce vitamin D from sunlight exposure is impaired), excess dietary fat intake, malabsorption conditions of the GI tract, and obesity (more vitamin D is deposited in stored body fat making less of it available for normal use).  Too much or too little vitamin D is now considered a strong contributory factor in unbalanced calcium metabolism and dystrophic calcification.
Food Sources:  Fish liver oil, fatty fish (such as salmon and sardines), egg yolks, and fortified foods (such as milk).  Some fish are known to be too contaminated (with mercury and PCBs, both by-products of industrial processes) to be healthful sources of vitamin D (or omega-3s), and include: King mackerel, shark, swordfish, and tilefish (generally, the bigger fish).  Better choices include salmon (especially wild-caught salmon), sardines, halibut, sole, and yellowfin tuna.  Supplemental Source:  Because vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin it should be taken in an oil-based form, with vitamin D3 from mercury-free fish liver oil considered the best supplemental source.  When taking vitamin D in supplement form it is important to maintain an “intake balance” with the essential mineral magnesium to prevent a magnesium deficiency and to help prevent dystrophic calcification.
RDA:  Not established due to varied sunlight exposure conditions, skin type, age, and various other considerations.  (See RDI)
AI:  600 IU of vitamin D per day for adults.
UL:  2,000 IU of vitamin D per day for healthy adults.
RDI:  600 IU Daily Value of vitamin D per day to age 70, and 800 IU Daily Value of vitamin D per day age 71+ (recently updated from 400 IU/day).
ALT:  800-1,000 IU of vitamin D per day for adults (thought to reduce the risk of bone loss) up to 2,000 IU of vitamin D per day for adults (thought to afford some protection from colorectal conditions).  Many alternative doctors recommend 1,000 IU per day on an ongoing daily basis, up to a maximum of 2,000 IU of per day for 7-10 days to boost the immune system.  Some researchers recommend up to 3,000 IU of vitamin D per day for African-Americans, and up to 6,000 IU per day during pregnancy and lactation (Reference: “Official Recommended Intake for Vitamin D is Too Low” by William B. Grant, PhD, Orthomolecular Medicine News Service, Feb. 19, 2010).  Some alternative doctors recommend up to 5,000 IU of vitamin D per day for short periods (7-10 days) to boost the immune system for certain health conditions.  Some doctors have reported a significant reduction in the duration and symptoms associated with common seasonal (Winter) conditions by taking 5,000 IU of vitamin D with elderberry syrup daily for about a week.
TOX:  Amounts in excess of 10,000 IU of vitamin D per day may have adverse or toxic effects.  Excess vitamin D can induce hypercalcemia (high blood calcium), kidney stone formation, dystrophic calcification, and a magnesium deficiency.  Some researchers believe that supplemental intakes below 600 IU and above 2,000 IU of vitamin D per day, on an ongoing basis, may be a contributory factor in mobilizing calcium from bone, which weakens the bones and contributes to unbalanced calcium metabolism and dystrophic calcification.  Excess vitamin D supplementation may mobilize calcium from bones and dump it into the bloodstream.  Excess calcium in the bloodstream can cause dysfunction and damage to the endothelial cells that line the arteries, with such endothelial cell dysfunction and damage triggering dystrophic calcification and being a strong contributory factor in conditions that affect the cardiovascular system and kidneys.  Excess blood calcium increases the risk of kidney stone formation, and may increase the risk of irreversible kidney damage.  A Word of Caution: There is emerging evidence that suggests that: “Vitamin D supplementation may be contraindicated in those with autoimmune disorders, tuberculosis (TB), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), sarcoidosis, granulomatous diseases, adenoma of the parathyroid gland, and some lymphomas.”  Initial research with vitamin D (which is actually a “secosteroid” pro-hormone rather than an actual vitamin) has provided symptomatic improvement (such as inflammation suppression, which would be expected from a secosteroid) in those with autoimmune conditions.  However, because it is suspected that pathogens may be involved in some if not all autoimmune conditions, or may influence their progression, the use of vitamin D supplementation may only temporarily suppress the activity of the pathogen early-on – but the pathogen may actually proliferate over the long-term, resulting in markedly increased symptoms later (Reference: Autoimmunity Research Foundation, “Low Levels Of Vitamin D In Patients With Autoimmune Disease May Be Result, Not Cause, Of The Disease,” Science Daily, April 9, 2009).  It is thought by some researchers that vitamin D supplementation of 600 IU to 1,000 IU per day (or skin exposure to sunshine of about 10 minutes a day by those with a light complexion, or a little longer in those with a dark complexion), in those with autoimmune conditions, may not be enough vitamin D to cause or contribute to this potential risk, but those with these conditions should be guided by their doctor.  Excess intake of cod liver oil can supply vitamin D (as well as vitamin A) in amounts thought to be toxic.

An excess intake of vitamin D can induce a magnesium deficiency.  Hence, it is deemed prudent to have an adequate intake of magnesium when vitamin D supplements are taken (Reference: “Know the Importance of Taking Enough Magnesium with Your Vitamin D” Natural News.com, by Kerri Knox, RN, July 14, 2010).  Because of the interaction between vitamin D and magnesium (and their interaction with calcium) it is deemed prudent to maintain an “intake balance” between them when taken in concentrated supplement form to prevent a magnesium deficiency (and to prevent dystrophic calcification).  Example: If taking 1,000 IU of vitamin D3 daily then it would be prudent to also take at least 1,000 mg of magnesium daily for proper utilization of both.

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Vitamin E

Vitamin E (tocopherol, tocotrienol)  –  A family of eight fat-soluble antioxidant vitamins that supports the cardiovascular system, blood circulation, and cellular membrane health.  Vitamin E in dietary supplements that is labeled as d-alpha tocopherol is “natural” vitamin E and has about twice the biological activity than the same amount of synthetic vitamin E which is labeled as dl-alpha tocopherol.  Tocopherol is the primary form of vitamin E found in food.  Mixed tocopherols that contain the full-spectrum of tocopherols (alpha, beta, gamma and delta) are thought to be the most beneficial.  The “alpha” form is known to be the most biologically active form, and is the only form that remains active in the human body.  Tocotrienol is a different form of vitamin E that has a slightly different chemical structure than tocopherol.  Like tocopherol vitamin E, tocotrienol vitamin E is also composed of alpha, beta, gamma and delta components known as isomers (i.e., the same basic substance but with a different chemical structure having different properties that results in a different biological activity level, with the tocotrienol “alpha” isomer also being the most biologically active form).  The biological activity of tocotrienol vitamin E is only about 28% of tocopherol vitamin E, but nonetheless acts as an adjunct by rounding out and providing a full-spectrum of vitamin E activity.  Among its many other activities, recent research suggests that the tocotrienol form of vitamin E (which is naturally found in palm oil, whole grains and rice bran) may increase hair growth in those with male pattern baldness (the inherited gene expression androgenetic alopecia, the cause of 95% of all cases of hair loss), which occurs in about 25% of men starting at age 30 and in two-thirds of men by age 60 (in the study 100 mg of tocotrienol per day, taken for 8 months, demonstrated an average 42% increase in hair growth, but in spite of that was not seen as a “cure” for baldness).  As an antioxidant, vitamin E protects cell membranes from free radicals, which are formed during normal cellular metabolism and from exposure to environmental factors (such as cigarette smoke and air pollution).  In addition to cell membranes, vitamin E also protects from oxidation other structures that contain fat such as the protective myelin sheath that surround nerves, and other lipids such as triglycerides (blood fat) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol.  Basically, vitamin E protects fats from oxidation.  Vitamin E has a strong antioxidant synergy with vitamin C (and CoQ10).  When vitamin E neutralizes free radicals it loses its antioxidant capacity.  However, other antioxidants, most notably vitamin C, can regenerate vitamin E antioxidant capability.  Vitamin E is involved in cell-signaling (communication between cells), beneficially affects immune system activity, inhibits blood platelet aggregation (stickiness), and enhances vasodilation (blood vessel expansion) and blood flow (with the aid of vitamin C and the essential mineral magnesium).  Studies have demonstrated a profound beneficial influence on maintaining normal arterial functional flexibility by taking vitamin E (800 IU) and vitamin C (1,000 mg) just before consuming a fat-laden meal, which if consumed without taking the vitamins tends to cause arterial rigidity and a reduction in functional flexibility (which can last up to four hours after a meal).  Alpha-tocopheryl acetate and alpha-tocopheryl succinate are esters (a chemical reaction product) of tocopherols that are sometimes used in vitamin E supplements because of being more resistant to oxidation during storage than unesterified tocopherols.  When taken orally, the acetate and succinate portions separate away in the intestines leaving the vitamin E as bioavailable as alpha tocopherol vitamin E.
Deficiency:  Although rare, an overt deficiency of vitamin E can cause neurological symptoms, cellular and immune system dysfunction, and health and functional problems with the cardiovascular system.  A slight to moderate deficiency of vitamin E may cause an increase in the risk of cardiovascular problems.  Marginal vitamin E deficiency is thought to be very common, with about 90% of Americans thought to not get at least the RDA because the amount of vitamin E naturally present in food is small.
Food Sources:  Plant and seed oils (such as sunflower, safflower, canola, olive, corn and soybean oils), nuts (especially almonds and hazelnuts), legumes (especially peanuts), avocados, whole grains and seeds.  The vitamin E naturally present in food (and used in some supplements) is natural vitamin E.  The vitamin E used in “fortified” food (and in some supplements) is typically synthetic vitamin E.
RDA:  23 IU of natural alpha tocopherol vitamin E per day for adults.
UL:  1,500 IU of natural alpha tocopherol vitamin E per day for adults.
ALT:  200 IU of d-alpha tocopherol (natural) vitamin E per day for adults (or 400 IU every other day), up to a maximum of 800 IU of d-alpha tocopherol (natural) vitamin E per day for adults.  Synthetic vitamin E (dl-alpha tocopherol) has about half the biological activity as natural vitamin E (d-alpha tocopherol).
TOX:  Amounts of natural vitamin E of 2,000 IU per day is believed to increase the risk of all-cause mortality (death from all causes), while no such risk is associated with 200-800 IU of natural vitamin E per day.  An intake of 1,000 IU or more of natural vitamin E per day may interfere with the uptake of the other fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D and K).  Because vitamin E has a blood thinning effect (and because high doses may interfere with vitamin K uptake) it should not be taken without doctor supervision and is considered prudent to discontinue its use at least several days before surgical procedures.  Likewise, those who are vitamin K deficient, or have a bleeding condition (such as hemophilia), or take anticoagulant drugs (such as Coumadin^® ), or take anti-platelet drugs (such as Plavix^® ), or take NSAIDs, i.e., non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (such as aspirin and ibuprofen), should only take vitamin E under medical supervision to reduce the risk of hemorrhage (bleeding).  (Coumadin is the registered trademark of Bristol-Myers Squibb Co.; Plavix is the registered trademark of sanofi-aventis, a partner with Bristol-Myers Squibb Co.)  400 IU of vitamin E per day has been found to increase the progression of a genetic eye condition known as “retinitis pigmentosa” which can lead to blindness.  Some studies have suggested that supplemental vitamin E may increase the risk of hemorrhagic stroke (a bleeding stroke), while other studies have indicated that supplemental vitamin E may reduce the risk of ischemic stroke (a blood vessel blockage stroke); (at about 80% of all strokes, ischemic stroke is the most common).  Supplemental vitamin E of 200 IU per day (or 400 IU every other day) is generally deemed safe in healthy adults, as a balance between not increasing the risk of hemorrhagic stroke while helping to reduce the risk of ischemic stroke (blood vessel strengthening bioflavonoids such as provided by rose hips and rutin may also help reduce the risk of a hemorrhagic stroke).  Vitamin E naturally present in food is not known to produce any adverse effects or toxicity.

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Vitamin K

Vitamin K (phylloquinone K1, menaquinone K2, menadione K3)  –  A family of fat-soluble coenzyme vitamins that support normal blood coagulation and blood clotting (K1), normal bone matrix mineralization and cardiovascular function (K2), cell growth regulation, and is involved in cell-signaling activities (communication between cells).  The vitamin K name is derived from “koagulation,” the German word for coagulation.  Phylloquinone is natural vitamin K1 and is formed in growing plants, and is the primary source for vitamin K in the western diet.  Menaquinone is natural vitamin K2 and is formed in a natural 10:1 ratio (10 parts K1 produces 1 part K2) in the human body by the action of friendly bacteria in the intestines on phylloquinone (vitamin K1), and along with its unique formation pathway is believed to have unique biological functions that are not yet fully understood.  Vitamin K2 is also naturally found in certain fermented foods.  Menadione is synthetic vitamin K3 and its use has largely been discontinued these days due to its tendency to produce adverse effects that were discovered when administered to infants, which includes oxidative damage to cell membranes as a result of vitamin K3 interfering with the function of glutathione (a potent antioxidant that is naturally produced in the body), rupture of red blood cells, and causing liver toxicity and damage that results in jaundice.  However, vitamin K3 has been used in adults in large doses (50 mg of vitamin K3 with 5,000 mg of vitamin C in a pharmaceutical preparation known as Apatone) which was thought may help make chemotherapy drugs more effective.  Vitamin K is an important factor in the regulation and proper use of the mineral calcium (K1 in the blood coagulation process), and may help balance calcium metabolism (K2 in bone mineralization and normal cardiovascular function).  Vitamin K is an enzymatic cofactor that catalyzes the carboxylation (sparks the introduction of carbon dioxide) of glutamic acid (an amino acid) that is critical to the calcium-binding aspect of the blood coagulation process.  Vitamin K and calcium are critical to blood clotting.  Vitamin K1 is the vitally important factor in a series of events (known as the blood coagulation cascade pathway) that stops bleeding through blood clot formation, and also provides control and balance to prevent uncontrolled blood clotting.  Both uncontrolled bleeding and uncontrolled blood clotting are life threatening.  Blood coagulation factors that are dependent on vitamin K are synthesized (made) in the liver.  Liver damage or disease can interfere with this process and lower blood levels of vitamin K dependent blood clotting factors.  Thus, liver damage or disease can increase the risk of uncontrolled bleeding.  Anticoagulant drugs such as Coumadin^® (warfarin) inhibit coagulation by interfering with the vitamin K cycle in the blood coagulation cascade pathway, which inhibits blood clot formation.  This is the reason why those who take anticoagulant drugs have their blood clotting time monitored on a regular basis, which is known as prothrombin time (PT), also known as “pro-time.”  In addition to measuring the clotting tendency of blood, PT blood tests (often used in conjunction with a PTT blood test, i.e., a partial thromboplastin time blood test) are also used to evaluate the function of all the blood coagulation factors (Factor I, II, V, VII and X), and is used to check for liver damage and vitamin K status.  The usual reference range for PT time is about 12-15 seconds in healthy adults but such range can vary somewhat from lab to lab.  Increased PT times may be due to bile duct obstruction (which prevents bile from breaking down dietary fat and its uptake along with the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K), chronic liver conditions, the taking of anticoagulant drugs, a vitamin K deficiency, or a condition known as “disseminated intravascular coagulation” (which is where the proteins that control blood clotting become abnormally active and as a result cause abnormal blood clot formation throughout the body, and when those blood clotting proteins become exhausted it dramatically increases the risk of highly visible subcutaneous bleeding throughout the body – not to be confused with the vitamin C deficiency condition of scurvy).  Vitamin K also plays a role in bone strength and the normal function of the cardiovascular system and the kidneys by helping to regulate the proper use of the mineral calcium.  It is thought that proteins dependent on vitamin K work in a synergistic fashion with vitamin D in bone metabolism that affects bone matrix mineralization and bone density, and thus bone strength.  Inadequate vitamin K is thought to compromise bone density by not allowing normal bone matrix mineralization, which causes the mineral calcium to slowly migrate out of bones (weakening them) and enter the bloodstream (contributing to unbalanced calcium metabolism which can affect the cardiovascular system, kidneys, and eyes).  Studies suggest that one of the vitamin K dependent proteins (known as MGP) may help prevent dystrophic calcification (calcium deposits in soft tissues), especially the calcium deposits that tend to accumulate around heart valves and buildup in the arteries and kidneys.  Thus, diets rich in vitamin K1 (naturally present in certain plant foods) and vitamin K2 (naturally present in certain fermented foods) may help prevent dystrophic calcification.  Another vitamin K dependent protein (known as Gas6) is thought to be involved in a diverse range of important cellular functions, including cell adhesion and proliferation, and may afford some protection from apoptosis (programmed cell death).  It is also thought that Gas6 regulates platelet signaling (involved in blood coagulation and blood clot formation), and plays a role in maintaining vascular homeostasis (the normal functional balance of the blood vessels).  Diets that are especially rich in leafy green plant foods, which is the natural source for vitamin K (as well as having a host of other beneficial nutrients), may help support proper blood flow and blood vessel function, may help support bone density and strength, may help prevent dystrophic calcification, and may help slow apoptosis (cell death) and thus slow the aging process.  The vitamin K family is distinguished by their side-chains (i.e., their basic molecular structure), which are of varying lengths.  Recent research suggests that the longer side-chains of vitamin K2 (which have the designation MK-7, MK-8, and MK-9) are thought to be beneficial for the cardiovascular system and bone health, especially vitamin K2 with the MK-7 side-chain, by helping to normalize calcium use – that is, helping to keep excess calcium out of the bloodstream and in the bones where it belongs for normal function – thus helping to prevent dystrophic calcification and weak bones.  Vitamin K2 with the MK-7 side-chain is naturally present in certain fermented foods, such as sauerkraut, certain cheeses (the Dutch cheeses Edam and Gouda), and especially natto (a rather strong-tasting Japanese fermented soybean food, not to be confused with the fibrin-controlling enzyme Nattokinase dietary supplement which is derived from natto but has had the vitamin K content removed).  Recent research suggests that only a small intake of vitamin K2 MK-7 (about 1-2 mcg/day) may afford a degree of protection from certain cardiovascular conditions and support bone health, however, more in-depth research is needed to clearly delineate the benefits and define optimal intake levels.  Because of the naturally occurring synergy of function between certain nutrients, vitamin K2 MK-7, as it naturally occurs in certain foods, may one day prove to be a useful adjunct to the cardiovascular health benefits demonstrated by Potentiated Magnesium (pMg).  However, there are some problems with the regular (daily) intake of the foods that naturally contain vitamin K2 MK-7.  Sauerkraut is too acid-forming for daily consumption (acid-forming foods have been associated with certain health problems), Edam and Gouda cheeses contain too much saturated animal fat and excess calcium (which have been associated with cardiovascular health problems), and natto (the richest natural source of vitamin K2 MK-7) is not readily available outside of Japan and has a particularly strong and unfamiliar taste for the western palate.  There are also some problems with the supplemental form of vitamin K2 MK-7.  Vitamin K supplements are contraindicated in those who have cardiovascular health issues, dystrophic calcification, or are prone to blood clots.
Deficiency:  A vitamin K deficiency will result in the loss of normal blood clotting and increase the risk of bleeding (mimicking the genetic disorder hemophilia), and causes easy subcutaneous bleeding (bleeding under the skin that resembles deep bruising).  Overt vitamin K deficiency is uncommon in healthy adults, primarily because it is widespread in food, and also because of the friendly bacteria that normally inhabit the intestines where vitamin K2 is synthesized from ingested vitamin K1 in plant foods.  Also, once ingested, vitamin K is conserved as it is recycled in the vitamin K cycle during normal usage.  Those most at risk of a vitamin K deficiency are those who take anticoagulant drugs, those with significant liver damage or disease, those with dietary fat absorption disorders (because of being a fat-soluble vitamin, vitamin K requires some dietary fat for its uptake), and those who consume a diet void of plant foods, especially avoiding dark-green leafy vegetables.
Food Sources:  Vitamin K is naturally present in food and is primarily found in plant foods, and is especially rich in dark-green leafy vegetables with small amounts in some vegetable oils (canola, olive and soybean oils).  The richest plant sources of vitamin K1 include: Swiss chard, kale, broccoli, spinach, kelp, mustard greens, and green leaf lettuce.  The richest food source of vitamin K2 that have the longest side-chains (MK-7, MK-8, and MK-9) is from certain fermented foods, specifically Japanese natto, sauerkraut, and certain cheeses (Edam and Gouda).  Hydrogenated oils inhibit the absorption and biological effects of vitamin K.  Vitamin K as is naturally present in food, especially leafy green vegetables, is generally considered its best source (and is considered a better and safer source than vitamin K supplements).
RDA:  No RDA for vitamin K has been established.
AI:  120 mcg of vitamin K per day for healthy adult males, and 90 mcg of vitamin K per day for healthy adult females – from food.  It is thought that diets that are high in leafy green vegetables provide adequate vitamin K, and such a diet is considered especially important as we age to provide the body with the nutrients it needs for proper function and health.
ALT:  Vitamin K supplementation is generally considered unnecessary in healthy adults who consume a plant-based diet.  It is believed that 250 mcg of vitamin K a day (the amount of vitamin K1 in ½ cup of chopped broccoli or in a large salad of mixed greens, which converts to 25 mcg of vitamin K2) may confer a degree of protection from age-related bone loss and weakening, and is associated with a decreased risk of hip fracture in mature adults.  However, evidence of a relationship between high-dose vitamin K supplementation and bone health in adults is considered weak at best.  While it has been speculated that a lack of vitamin K in the diet may play a role in vascular dystrophic calcification, it remains unclear exactly what the nature of that role may be.  Recent research suggests that vitamin K2 MK-7 may play a role in calcium metabolism.  Strong evidence from recent research points to unbalanced calcium metabolism as the underlying culprit in dystrophic calcification.  The only substance capable of balancing calcium metabolism is the essential mineral magnesium.
TOX:  No known adverse effects or toxicity is associated with natural vitamin K1 – from ingested plant foods – or with vitamin K2 that is naturally produced in the intestines from vitamin K1 with the aid of the friendly bacteria that normally reside in the intestines.  Vitamin K in supplement form is known to increase the risk of cardiovascular events and blood clots (specifically being prone to readily form blood clots).  Synthetic vitamin K3 has documented serious adverse effects, especially in infants.  Large doses of vitamin E (1,000 IU or more per day), or large doses of the other fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A and D), may interfere with vitamin K absorption, especially in those on anticoagulant drug therapy.  Prolonged use of broad spectrum antibiotics (which kill friendly intestinal bacteria) may decrease the intestinal synthesis of vitamin K2.  It is unknown what adverse effects there are with the regular or long-term intake of supplemental vitamin K MK-7 in healthy adults.  Vitamin K supplements should not be taken without the guidance of a knowledgeable medical doctor.

Vitamins have a strong synergy with minerals.

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• What Are Minerals
• Trace Minerals
• Electrolytes & Ions
• Mineral Measurements
• Intake References
  

• Calcium
• Magnesium
• Potassium
• Sodium
• Chloride
• Phosphorus
• Zinc
• Iron
• Iodine
• Selenium
• Copper
• Chromium
• Fluoride
• Manganese
• Molybdenum
• Silica

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What Are Minerals

Dietary minerals are “inorganic” because they contain no carbon, were never alive, and are elements that originate from the earth’s crust (or from water that has picked up the minerals by flowing across the earth’s crust), and are the basic elements of body structure and function that are required for health and life.  While vitamins often get the nutritional spotlight, minerals often get relegated to the position of the neglected stepchild.  In reality, vitamins are basically coenzymes that assist function, while minerals are the basic elements of life that allow function.  Basically, minerals are the inorganic structure and function part of the human body’s organic cells, fluids and tissues.

Minerals are also known as Elements, the same basic elements that everything on Earth is made of (there are 92 identified naturally occurring elements on Earth).  Elements are basic substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances.  Minerals are the basic structural and functional elements of the human body.

The approximate elemental mineral content of the human body:  Oxygen 65.4%, Carbon 18.2%, Hydrogen 9.5%, Nitrogen 3%, Calcium 1.67%, Phosphorus 1.14%, Potassium 0.342%, Sulfur 0.228%, Chloride 0.152%, Sodium 0.137%, Magnesium 0.053%, and Silicon 0.046%.  The remaining approximate 0.4398% is composed of the trace minerals.

Minerals are “essential” in that they cannot be made by the body.  All minerals come into the body via the diet, from: (1) Consuming plant foods (which took up the minerals from the soil and water they were grown in); (2) Consuming animal foods (who got the minerals by consuming plants and other animals); (3) Consuming fish and seafood (who got what minerals they have by growing in a mineral-rich environment); and (4) Consuming water which got the minerals by picking them up from the earth’s crust as the water flows down the mountains on its way to the oceans of the world, which is the richest source of minerals on earth.  It is interesting to note that ocean water content closely resembles human blood content.  The minerals that make up Earth, also make up the human body.

The primary dietary minerals are: Calcium, chloride, chromium, copper, fluoride, iodine, iron, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, sodium and zinc.

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Trace Minerals

Minerals can be thought of as two basic types: Those needed or present in the body in relatively large gram (g) and milligram (mg) amounts known as macrominerals (such as calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium), and those needed or present in the body in small microgram (mcg) amounts known as trace minerals (such as iodine and selenium).  Some minerals (such as fluoride and zinc) are considered trace minerals because there are only small amounts present in the body, in spite of being needed in milligram amounts (albeit low milligram amounts).  (1,000 micrograms = 1 milligram; 1,000 milligrams = 1 gram)

Trace minerals are also known as microminerals.

Trace minerals, such as copper, iodine, molybdenum, selenium, silica and vanadium are minerals the body needs in very small amounts but nonetheless are important for the structure and function of the body, with larger amounts being toxic.  The so-called heavy metals aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury are known to be especially toxic.

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Electrolytes & Ions

After consumption, minerals function by separating their molecules into their component parts known as ions.  Ions are atoms or groups of atoms that have either a positive (+) electrical charge called a cation (formed from the words cathode and ion), or a negative (-) electrical charge called an anion (formed from the words anode and ion).  Ions in solution in the internal fluid environment of the body (both inside and outside of cells) are called electrolytes, and are what conduct the electrical impulse that sparks body function, which includes such vital things as ion transport in and out of cells, nerve impulses, muscle movement, glandular secretions, and even the thought process (with this electrical impulse known as the “action potential”).  Electrolyte ions are vital to help control fluid levels in the body, help maintain normal pH levels, help maintain normal skeletal and cardiovascular muscle function, and ensure the correct electrical potential between neurons (nerve cells) that enable the transmission of nerve signals.

The important electrolyte minerals, such as sodium (+), potassium (+), calcium (+), magnesium (+), chloride (-), and phosphorus (-), naturally carry an electrical charge when in solution.  The positive-charged cation electrolytes (such as sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium) are balanced by the negative-charged anion electrolytes (such as bicarbonate, chloride, phosphorus and sulfur).  The human body cannot function without electrolytes.

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Mineral Measurements

Mineral amounts are measured by weight in grams (g) (which is 1,000 milligrams), in milligrams (mg) (which is 1,000 micrograms), and in micrograms (mcg).

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Intake References

RDA – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Institute of Medicine sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of most healthy adults, which is known as the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), and is part of the set of guidelines known as the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).  RDAs are a planning tool as a guideline for amount of nutrient intake.

AI – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Institute of Medicine as adequate for apparently healthy people when an RDA cannot be determined, which is known as Adequate Intake (AI), and is part of the set of guidelines known as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).  AIs are an assessment tool.

UL – The highest average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Institute of Medicine that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects in most adults (but increases above the UL may increase potential risk of adverse effects), which is known as the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL), and is part of the set of guidelines known as the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).  ULs are an assessment tool.

RDI – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level designated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for healthy adults who consume 2,000 to 2,500 calories a day and is referred to on food labels as Percent Daily Value (% DV), and is known as the Reference Daily Intake (RDI) (previously known as the US RDA).  RDIs are a planning tool as a guideline for amount of nutrient intake in relation to the total calories consumed.

ALT – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level commonly suggested for healthy adults by most nutritionally knowledgeable alternative doctors and nutritionists, with such Alternative (ALT) intake levels recognized or believed to have added health benefits.  ALTs are a planning tool as a guideline for amount of nutrient intake.

TOX – The average daily dietary nutrient intake level for adults generally regarded as Toxic (TOX) or believed to produce adverse effects, if known.  TOXs are a guideline of toxic amounts of nutrient intake.

Where an Intake Reference is not indicated, the amount is not known or has not been established.  However, anything in very large amounts can have deleterious effects (even water, which is probably the most benign thing that is consumed, can cause death if consumed in massive amounts).  All amounts indicated are for healthy adults.

The correct balance of minerals should be consumed regularly for body structure, proper body function, to maintain health, and for life to exist and thrive.  Do not start a supplement regimen without first checking with your doctor.

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Calcium

Calcium (Ca)  –  An essential cation (+) electrolyte mineral that supports mineralization of bones and teeth, cell-signaling and nerve impulse transmissions, blood coagulation and clotting, muscle contractions, and is involved in the secretion of certain hormones (such as insulin).  Calcium is used for body structure and function, and is balanced by the essential mineral magnesium.

Bones and teeth store about 99% of the body’s content of calcium (with calcium making up 32.3% of bone by weight).  The remaining 1% of free calcium is in the blood, tissues, and extracellular fluid (the fluid that surrounds the cells) which must be maintained within a very narrow margin for normal physiological function, and is so vital to be maintained for survival that if inadequate the body will rob the bones of calcium to maintain normal blood calcium levels.  Bone is dynamic living tissue that is constantly undergoing osteoclastic bone resorption and osteoblastic bone formation, with this process known as “remodeling.”  Remodeling (i.e., replacing old bone with new bone) is a lifelong process that occurs at a rate of about 10% of bone per year in adults (almost 100% in the first year of life).  Bone mineral density (BMD) is negatively impacted if the normal bone remodeling process is thrown out of balance and bone resorption chronically exceeds bone formation, with this bone-weakening condition known as osteoporosis (which literally means porous bones).  It is the mineral density of bone that gives bone its strength.

Vitamin D (600-2,000 IU per day) is required for proper calcium uptake, while excess vitamin D (above 2,000 IU per day ongoing), excess dietary protein, and/or excess sodium can drain calcium from bones.  Other factors that can cause calcium to be drained from bones, and contribute to unbalanced calcium metabolism, include: The consumption of an improperly balanced diet (too much meat, dairy and sugar, and not enough fresh fruit and vegetables), chronic consumption of sodas (including diet sodas), excess consumption of foods high in phosphorus (such as animal foods and sodas) along with inadequate consumption of plant foods (especially magnesium-rich leafy green vegetables and legumes), inadequate magnesium intake (from food and supplements), inactivity or inadequate exercise (the rate of bone resorption is accelerated with lack of body movement against the force of gravity, while the process of bone formation favorably responds to the functional demands of exercised muscle use), and failure to reach peak bone mass (i.e., maximum bone growth and density) by the third decade of life, which is attained by consuming a proper diet and engaging in regular exercise during the formative years.

Bones are basically collagen fibers (formed from protein amino acids and vitamin C) that have been hardened by minerals (principally calcium phosphate), with this known as mineralization.  It is the mineralization of bones that provides its bone mineral density.  In addition to calcium being needed for initial bone formation, mineralization and ongoing remodeling, other nutrients are also required, such as protein amino acids, the vitamins C, D and K, and the minerals magnesium, phosphorus, silicon, boron, zinc, manganese and iron, along with several other minerals in trace amounts – and especially the mineral strontium, with its involvement and importance only recently discovered.  The basic material of bones – collagen – is synthesized (produced) in bone-forming cells known as osteoblasts (enzymes that indicate the rate of collagen formation can be measured in the blood, as well as the rate of bone resorption).  It is these other nutrients, rather than calcium alone, that provide bones with their strength and natural flexibility.  Calcium supplementation (especially high-dose calcium supplementation of 1,000 mg or more per day) without these other nutrients tends to lead to brittle bones (which makes them more susceptible to breakage), and strongly contributes to unbalanced calcium metabolism – especially in older adults.  Bones remain flexible (and hence, less susceptible to breakage) with adequate intakes of magnesium.  Contrary to popular belief, calcium in supplement form (especially when in excess and without the other supporting nutrients) does not build bones or make them stronger, instead contributing to unbalanced calcium metaboilsm and dystrophic calcification (calcium deposits in soft tissues, primarily having a negative impact on the endothelial cells that line the arteries, and can also affect the kidneys and the eyes) – while calcium that is naturally present in food is utilized properly and has no such problems connected with its consumption.  Calcium in supplement form (and calcium added to food or drinks) is used by the body differently than calcium that is naturally present in food.

As the human body ages all its structures and tissues gradually deteriorate, including the bones.  Contrary to popular belief, calcium supplementation in mature adults does not increase bone density or strength, prevent bone loss, or restore lost bone.  Rather than inadequate dietary calcium, there is strong convincing evidence that too much acid-forming foods (meat, dairy, sugar, processed foods, sodas, carbonated water, and junk food) with too little alkaline-forming foods (fresh fruits and vegetables), along with hormone changes in menopause and postmenopausal women, coupled with physical inactivity or lack of regular exercise (sitting for long periods, everyday, is the most unhealthy), are the underlying cause of bone loss in aging adults.  For more comprehensive and learned insight into bone loss, and the issues that surround it, see “The Bone Health Revolution” by Vivian Goldschmidt, which indicate that the alkaline-forming foods should make up about 80% of the food consumed, along with regular weight-bearing exercise (such as walking), for optimum bone health and function.

Regular exercise (especially weight training and weight-bearing exercises), supported by a healthy lifestyle (proper nutrition, adequate sleep and stress management), has been shown to not only prevent bone loss but actually enhance bone density and restore bone strength – even in older adults.

As with all mineral elements after consumption, calcium is broken down into its ion components so it can function in the body.  Positive-charged calcium ions work in close concert with other nutrients, usually synergistically but sometimes antagonistically.  In cell-signaling, excitable cells (such as muscle and nerve cells) contain voltage-dependent calcium channels in the cell membranes that allow calcium ions to function.  This important function is controlled and regulated by the essential mineral magnesium which is a well-known natural calcium channel blocker, with magnesium balancing and regulating calcium entry into cells.  If too much calcium enters cells (because of inadequate magnesium on site to regulate it), it can inhibit the cell’s normal function and cause cell dysfunction and damage.

In blood coagulation and clotting, calcium ions are required for the activation of several vitamin K dependent factors in the coagulation cascade, which is a series of dependent events that leads to blood clot formation.  Calcium is known as blood coagulation Factor IV.  Calcium concentrations in the blood and extracellular fluid are maintained with the help of the parathyroid glands’ parathyroid hormone (PTH), vitamin D, magnesium, and the kidneys.

Excess unbalanced calcium circulating in the blood can damage the cells that line the interior of the arteries (the endothelial cells), and is the forerunner to dystrophic calcification.  A vitamin K dependent calcium-binding protein known as osteocalcin, which is known to be secreted by bone-forming osteoblast cells, is thought to be involved in the dystrophic calcification process.  Some researchers believe that osteocalcin may be produced by damaged endothelial cells, thus helping to contribute to dystrophic calcification.  It is known that osteocalcin binds strongly to calcium.  Blood levels of osteocalcin are a biochemical marker (biomarker) for calcium and bone metabolism.  Higher osteocalcin blood levels are associated with loss of calcium from bone (which weakens them) and unbalanced calcium metabolism (which is the underlying cause of dystrophic calcification).  In addition to its role in bone formation and calcium metabolism, osteocalcin also acts as a hormone which stimulates the beta cells in the pancreas to secrete insulin. 

Because calcium has the ability to bind bile acids and fatty acids in the stool, it is thought that calcium may reduce the compounds that tend to adversely affect the colon, possibly reducing the incidence of polyps and the risk of certain colorectal conditions.  However, calcium only seems to have this beneficial effect in those who have a low dietary fat intake, and with the concurrent intake of vitamin D and an adequate intake of the mineral magnesium – with adequate dietary fiber intake believed to also be effective, especially regular psyllium fiber intake.  There is a growing body of evidence that supports the notion that it is actually the mineral magnesium rather than calcium that may provide colon benefits.

Deficiency:  Inadequate calcium in the diet (the preferred source) causes low blood calcium (hypocalcemia) which causes nervous system irritability that can cause overly active reflexes (which can manifest as tetany, i.e., muscle spasms and cramps), inhibit normal blood clotting, cause poor bone mineralization and remodeling which results in soft bones (osteomalacia), hinders reaching peak bone mass if deficient during the formative years, and contributes to an electrolyte imbalance.  Excess sodium, caffeine, meat and sodas are thought to be detrimental, as are excess dairy products, calcium fortified foods, and excess calcium supplementation.

Food Sources:  Calcium is especially concentrated in dairy products (milk and milk-based products such as cheese and yogurt), and is naturally present in canned fish with bones (such as sardines), tofu (soybean curd), Chinese cabbage, legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans), leafy green vegetables, nuts and seeds.  Each gram of tahini (ground sesame seeds) contains about 10 mg of calcium.  Calcium naturally present in food (as part of a balanced diet) is regarded as much preferred over food fortified with added calcium, and is especially preferred over calcium in concentrated supplement form.  The approximate calcium content naturally present in common foods are: Cheese 500 mg/3.5 oz; Sardines 500 mg/3.5 oz; Tofu 500 mg/3.5 oz; Yogurt 350 mg/8 oz (250 mg/6 oz); Milk 300 mg/8 oz; Almonds 245 mg/3.5 oz; Cottage Cheese 240 mg/4 oz; Salmon 240 mg/4 oz; Frozen Yogurt 200 mg/cup; Ice Cream 176 mg/cup; Spinach 150 mg/cup; Beans 135 mg/3.5 oz; Broccoli 125 mg/cup; and Sesame Seeds 90 mg/Tbsp.

RDA:  Because of the complex nature of how calcium is used in the body (calcium metabolism), and contrary to popular belief, no current RDA for calcium is established and instead Adequate Intake (AI) as part of the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) is referenced.  Previously, there was an RDA established at 1,200 mg/day for calcium for those age 11 to 24 years, and 800 mg/day for calcium for adults age 25 and above.

AI:  1,000 mg of calcium per day for adults (age 19-50) from all sources (diet, fortified foods, and supplements), and 1,200 mg of calcium per day for adults (age 51 and older) from all sources (diet, fortified foods, and supplements).  Calcium naturally present in food is the preferred source, which is assimilated much better than calcium that has been added to food as “fortification” or from calcium supplements.

UL:  2,500 mg of calcium per day for adults from all sources (diet, fortified foods, and supplements).

ALT:  600-650 mg of calcium per day for adults who have not yet reached peak bone mass (30-35 years of age); 300-400 mg of calcium per day for adults who are past the age of having reached peak bone mass (30-35 years of age); 200-300 mg of calcium per day for older adults (especially those with verified arterial calcification); and 200 mg of calcium per day for those with severe arterial calcification – with all such amounts of calcium preferentially derived from food (calcium that is naturally present in food is the preferred source rather than from heavily fortified foods, drinks and dietary supplements).  Considerable credible evidence strongly suggests that the optimum daily adult intake of calcium (from diet, fortified foods, and supplements combined) to properly support health is significantly less than commonly thought, and much less than the amount that is routinely recommended and heavily promoted.  Several epidemiological studies have shown that in countries where the calcium intake is 200-400 mg per day arterial calcification is non-existent, and blood pressure does not increase with age.  By contrast, in countries where the calcium intake is around the AI level (1,000-1,200 mg per day) arterial calcification is common, while in populations where the calcium intake is well in excess of the AI level (1,500 mg or more per day) arterial calcification is rampant.  Recent research has demonstrated that calcium has a U-shaped curve of benefit vs. adverse effect.  That is, too much is not good, and too little is not good.

TOX:  Excess calcium intake (1,500 mg or more per day in supplement form, including the amount of calcium in antacids which are the largest volume over-the-counter medication) has produced elevated blood calcium levels (hypercalcemia) in some individuals that may result in mental confusion, delirium, coma, and if not treated even death can occur.  Calcium intakes of 2,000 mg per day (from food and supplements) are known to cause hypercalcemia.

Large habitual intakes (1,000-1,500 mg/day) of calcium in supplement form have been associated with health concerns that include: Dystrophic calcification (calcium deposits in soft tissues), an elevated risk of prostate conditions (especially metastasized prostate conditions), high blood pressure (due to the reduced functional elasticity of the aortic arch as a result of dystrophic calcification), an increased risk of developing kidney stones, possible lead poisoning (lead, a toxic heavy metal, has sometimes been present in calcium supplements), and is a strong contributory factor in unbalanced calcium metabolism which is believed to be the underlying cause of dystrophic calcification – the end result of endothelial cell and vascular smooth muscle cell damage and inflammation caused by excess and unbalanced calcium.

A recent study conducted at the University of Iowa found that when postmenopausal women took 1,000 mg of calcium per day in supplement form with 400 IU of vitamin D per day for seven years, it was associated with a 17% increase in the risk of developing kidney stones.  (Reference: “Urinary tract stone occurrence in the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) randomized clinical trial of calcium and vitamin D supplements” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, July 2011, Volume 94, Number 1, Pages 270-277.)

Contrary to popular belief, large habitual intakes (1,000-1,500 mg/day) of calcium in supplement form taken by older adults can make bones brittle, thus making them more susceptible to breakage.  On the other hand, the regular intake of magnesium by older adults helps keep bones flexible and therefore less susceptible to breakage.

Excess calcium, without the balance provided by the essential mineral magnesium, is the fundamental essence of how calcium metabolism becomes unbalanced.  Calcium metabolism is how calcium ions are used on the cellular level.  Excess calcium intake (and lack of regular exercise which causes a calcium drain from bones) causes excess blood calcium, which is the precursor to cell damage.  Excess blood calcium causes an influx of calcium ions into the endothelial cells (the cells that line the artery walls) and the vascular smooth muscle cells (via voltage-dependent L-type calcium channels), and along with intracellular (inside the cell) calcium release from the calcium storage site organelles (endoplasmic and sarcoplasmic reticulum), trigger cell dysfunction (that leads to cell damage), as well as triggering vascular smooth muscle contractions (which can also contribute to muscle spasm or cramp).  Calcium enters cells (vascular and cardiac smooth muscle cells and the endothelial cells that line and protect the arteries) because of the electrical potential that drives the positive-charged calcium ions into the negative-charged cell membrane, and because of the degree of concentration of calcium ions (i.e., a chemical gradient which causes calcium ions to diffuse into cells) – with the amount of intracellular calcium concentration being a key factor in smooth muscle contractions and endothelial cell function.  Calcium overload (in the face of inadequate magnesium) leads to an accumulation of intracellular calcium which causes cellular dysfunction by damaging the energy-producing mitochondria organelle, which alters normal cell function and damages the entire cell.  Excess calcium intake causes cellular damage.  It is the cellular damage to the endothelial cells (the endothelium) that line the arteries and heart that causes chronic low-grade inflammation (detectable with the C-reactive protein blood test).  Besides damaging the endothelial cells that line the arteries, it is believed that excess calcium ions in the bloodstream (especially without adequate balancing magnesium) may be a contributory factor in arterial spasm and contraction associated with cardiovascular conditions.

Calcium intake from supplements, as well as the consumption of concentrated calcium from large intakes of dairy products, inhibits magnesium uptake.  In addition to inhibiting magnesium uptake (the magnesium in food and magnesium supplements), calcium supplements can interfere with the uptake of the heart medication digitalis (digoxin), and the uptake of the minerals iron and zinc.  Diuretics can increase the risk of hypercalcemia (elevated blood calcium) by overburdening normal kidney function (the kidneys help regulate blood calcium).  Concentrated calcium (from supplements and dairy products) tends to produce constipation.

Even though calcium that is naturally present in food has no known toxic effects, large habitual consumption of dairy products are thought to carry with them an increased risk of certain health concerns.  Concentrated calcium intakes from dietary supplements, and/or excess consumption of dairy products, are thought to be a contributory factor in painful nocturnal muscle cramps (aka “use cramps”) of the legs and feet, which are common among older adults – especially when consumed before going to bed, along with previous leg muscle overuse or strain, with a concurrent lack of balanced electrolyte mineral intake, and is often triggered by sudden leg movement from a still or sleeping position.  Calcium is a well-known muscle contraction trigger, while magnesium balances calcium and relaxes muscles.  Adequate magnesium taken with copious amounts of common electrolyte fluids (such as Gatorade^®) has repeatedly demonstrated immediate relief from muscle cramps in the legs and feet.  A homemade electrolyte replenishment drink can be made by mixing in a glass of water the contents of one 99 mg capsule of potassium, ¼ teaspoon of sea salt, one teaspoon of sugar (unless diabetic), and taken with 250 mg of magnesium.  (Gatorade is the registered trademark of Stokely-Van Camp, Inc.)

In spite of the fact that calcium has been glorified and heavily promoted in recent years it remains the most misunderstood – and overused – nutrient there is, while magnesium is probably the most underrated nutrient.  Magnesium balances calcium.

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Magnesium

Magnesium (Mg)  –  An essential cation (+) electrolyte mineral that supports normal: Cardiovascular health, cell-signaling and nerve impulse transmissions, normal blood pressure, MgATP energy production, blood glucose breakdown and use (glycolysis), carbohydrate and lipid utilization, phosphorylation of proteins, cell membrane structure and function, ion transport across cell membranes and cellular function, relaxes muscle contractions, is involved in bone formation and remodeling, is vital in over 600 essential metabolic and enzymatic reactions, helps modulate and balance the immune system, is involved in the synthesis of DNA and RNA and the production of the important antioxidant glutathione, is a natural calcium channel blocker that controls and regulates how much calcium enters cells, and balances calcium metabolism.

Magnesium is generally considered by the most knowledgeable nutritionally-oriented doctors and orthomolecular researchers to be the single most important nutrient of the micronutrients (i.e., vitamins and minerals) – affecting and involved in more bodily systems, structures and functions than any other vitamin or mineral.  Magnesium can be thought of as the “master mineral.”

Amount and Distribution in the Body:  The adult human body contains about 25 grams (25,000 mg) of magnesium, more than 60% of which is in the skeleton structure (bones), with about 27% in cardiovascular and skeletal muscle tissue cells, 6-7% inside other cells, and a little less than 1% in extracellular fluid outside the cells.

Energy Production:  The production of energy from the metabolism (utilization on the cellular level) of ingested carbohydrates and fats is dependent upon numerous magnesium-dependent chemical reactions.  Magnesium is vital for the production of the cellular energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) produced by each cell’s “power plant” organelle the mitochondria (of which there are several in each cell), which provides the energy for nearly all metabolic processes, in the form of the complete energy complex MgATP (i.e., magnesium and adenosine triphosphate complex).  Magnesium is crucial for energy production.  There are several energy-producing mitochondria in each cell, with the number of mitochondria depending on the energy requirement of the organ or structure.  The greatest energy requirement is for the continuously functioning heart muscle where each heart muscle cell may have as many as 5,000 mitochondria, whereas each skeletal muscle cell may have only about 200 mitochondria – all of which require magnesium for normal function.

Glucose Utilization:  Magnesium is intimately involved in glycolysis (the normal breakdown of glucose in the metabolic production of cellular energy).  It is believed that adequate magnesium intake supports the normal ability of the cells to properly process glucose and utilize insulin.  Recent studies suggest that for every 100 mg increase in magnesium intake, there may be about a 15% corresponding decrease in the risk of developing incomplete glycolysis.  Magnesium is essential for normal glucose utilization.

Formation of Essential Molecules:  Magnesium is essential for the synthesis (formation) of:  Nucleic acid (the basis of DNA and RNA), the phosphorylation of proteins (a phosphate inorganic mineral derivative of organic protein, producing an organic phosphate, primarily used with the application of ATP in energy transfer, which aids in the regulation of metabolism), enzymes that participate in the utilization of carbohydrates and lipids (fats and fat-like substances such as cholesterol), and the important antioxidant molecule glutathione.  Glutathione is such a potent antioxidant that it is believed to have the ability to re-activate other antioxidants, and has been called the “master antioxidant.”

Body Structure/Function Roles:  Magnesium plays a major structural and functional role in bone formation and remodeling, in the structure and normal function of cell membranes, and in the structure of chromosomes.  Unlike high-dose calcium supplements that are often taken by older adults, which tends to make aging bones brittle and thus makes them more susceptible to breakage, magnesium is the mineral that helps keep aging bones flexible and as a result makes them less susceptible to breakage.  Magnesium is thought to help support normal colorectal cell function which may help lower the risk of abnormal colorectal cell growth. 

Muscle Function:  Magnesium supports the normal function and relaxes all of the body’s muscles, including the heart muscle, the muscles that allow respiratory function, the small muscles that surround blood vessels that allow the blood vessels to expand and contract (which supports normal blood pressure), and skeletal muscles that allow body movement.  There is an interaction between magnesium and the mineral zinc that supports normal muscle function, and when in the right proportions has demonstrated enhanced exercised muscle strength and endurance.

Nerve Impulses and Muscle Function:  As an electrolyte mineral, positive charged magnesium supports normal nerve impulses and normal muscle function, and helps balance the other electrolytes, including the positive charged (+) cation electrolytes (calcium, potassium and sodium) and the negative charged (–) anion electrolytes (bicarbonate, chloride, phosphate and sulfate).  The minerals sodium and potassium when balanced with adequate magnesium, along with adequate water intake, has demonstrated the prevention and relief from “use cramps” (i.e., muscle cramps, usually in the legs and feet, caused by unaccustomed or excessively vigorous physical activity, even when such physical activity may be a day or two beforehand, coupled with inadequate available electrolyte minerals sodium, potassium and magnesium, and inadequate water consumption).  “Use cramps” can more accurately be thought of as “overuse cramps.”  This knowledge about the normal use and function of electrolyte minerals in the human body is what inspired the development of the electrolyte replenishment drinks (such as Gatorade^®) commonly seen at sports events (not to be confused with the so-called “energy drinks” which may be harmful).  Magnesium supports normal nerve impulses, normal muscle function, and a normal heartbeat rhythm.  (Gatorade^® is the registered trademark of S-VC, Inc.)

Ion Transport Across Cell Membranes:  Magnesium is required for the active transport of ions (active mineral components) across the protective and selectively-permeable cell membranes, such as calcium ions and potassium ions, which affect such things as the conduction of nerve impulses, muscle contractions, and a normal heartbeat rhythm.

Calcium Channel Blocker:  Magnesium is the body’s natural calcium channel blocker, which controls and regulates how much calcium is allowed to enter cells.  Excess intracellular (inside the cell) calcium (from excess unbalanced calcium circulating in the bloodstream) can cause cellular dysfunction that may lead to cellular damage, which may affect the endothelial cells that line the arteries because of their direct exposure to the contents of the bloodstream.  Cellular dysfunction appears to be at the core of premature aging, and may be involved in abnormal cell formation.

Cell Signaling:  The energy complex MgATP is required for the formation of the cell-signaling molecule cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which is involved in several vital processes such as the secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) from the parathyroid glands (there are four in the human body), which is crucial in calcium and phosphorus metabolism (see “Calcium” for more details).

Brain and Nerve Function:  Magnesium is essential for normal neuron (nerve cell) function, and the normal function of the synapse (the small gap between nerve cells that allow them to transmit nerve impulse signals to each other).  Recent research suggests that dietary intakes of magnesium increases the number of functional synapses and enhances a host of brain processes that are necessary for such cognitive functions as learning and memory.  (Reference: “Magnesium found to boost learning and memory” NaturalNews, Feb. 4, 2010.)  Recent research conducted at the Center for Learning and Memory at Tsinghua University, in Beijing, China, suggests that 1,000 mg of magnesium supplementation per day appears to enhance cognitive abilities, and does so by directly improving “synaptic plasticity” (functional synapse flexibility), thereby improving multiple aspects of memory and learning for both young and old alike.  (References: “Magnesium Boosts Brain Function” Health & Wellness News, by Byron Richards, Jan. 31, 2010; and “Synaptic Plasticity – The Key to Your Brain’s Future” Health & Wellness News, by Byron Richards, June 27, 2009.)

Cardiovascular Health and Function:  Magnesium is essential for the normal health and function of the heart and vascular system.  As the body’s natural calcium channel blocker, magnesium prevents excess calcium from entering and damaging cells, especially the protective endothelial cells that line the arteries.  With its muscle relaxing qualities, magnesium supports a normal heartbeat rhythm, supports the normal function of the blood vessels, supports the normal function of the heart and vascular musculature thus helping to support a normal blood pressure, supports the prevention of dystrophic calcification, and provides the balance for unbalanced calcium metabolism (the underlying cause of dystrophic calcification).  Magnesium also helps ensure the proper use of carbohydrates and fats, which is important for the normal function of the cardiovascular system.  Magnesium is regarded as the single most heart-healthy nutrient there is.

Respiratory Function:  Magnesium supports the normal function of the respiratory system.  Magnesium helps support normal respiratory tract function by helping to relax the airway passages.  Magnesium may also influence the properties of respiratory cell membranes, thereby supporting the normal ability of the lungs to expand.  The respiratory benefits of magnesium are believed to be naturally enhanced when taken with the phytonutrients Bromelain (derived from the stems of the pineapple plant) and Quercetin (naturally present in onions and the skins of apples), along with adequate intakes of vitamin C and vitamin D3.

Health Span Support:  In a recently published scientific study abstract about magnesium (Mg) and its relationship to aging, it was stated: “The aging process is associated with progressive shortening of telomeres, repetitive DNA sequences, and proteins that cap and protect the ends of chromosomes.  Telomerase [an enzyme] can elongate pre-existing telomeres to maintain length and chromosome stability.  Low telomerase triggers increased catecholamines [stress chemicals] while the sensitivity of telomere synthesis to Mg ions is primarily seen for the longer elongation products.  Mg stabilizes DNA and promotes DNA replication and transcription, whereas low Mg might accelerate cellular senescence [aging] by reducing DNA stability, protein synthesis, and function of mitochondria.”  (Reference: “Correcting Magnesium Deficiencies May Prolong Life,” Journal of Clinical Interventions in Aging, Jan. 2012; Vol. 7, pages 51-55)

Chronic Stress & Sleep:  Magnesium supports stress management.  Lack of adequate magnesium magnifies stress, regardless of the stress source (physical, mental, emotional, or environmental).  Chronic stress can contribute to a magnesium deficiency.  An adequate daily magnesium intake supports the normal function of the adrenal glands, which can become overworked by stress.  A stress reaction involves the influx of calcium ions into cells which throws off the balance required for normal cell function, contributes to unbalanced calcium metabolism and brittle bones, and sets the stage for cellular dysfunction and damage.  Adequate magnesium supports normal cell function, balances calcium metabolism, keeps bones flexible which makes them less likely to break, and helps prevent cellular dysfunction and damage.  Magnesium also helps support sleep, the result of magnesium’s inherent muscle relaxing quality and normal ability to support stress management.

Uptake & Laxative Effect:  Magnesium in supplement form tends to produce a laxative effect because it is inherently hydrophilic, that is, when taken it tends to attract and hold water in the intestinal tract.  This is why magnesium (as magnesium hydroxide) is the primary ingredient in common laxative products, such as “Milk of Magnesia.”  This makes magnesium in all ordinary nutritional supplements difficult to take in any meaningful amount – with only the new and advanced form of magnesium known as Potentiated Magnesium^® (pMg) able to overcome the hydrophilic problem.  pMg^® is the only supplemental form of magnesium with 100% Uptake, not just bioavailability but actual uptake, thus allowing it to get to the cells where it is needed and used (rather than literally being eliminated the way other magnesium supplements are because of their inherent laxative effect when taken in any meaningful amount).  The 100% Uptake of Potentiated Magnesium^® is known as “Maxcelint Uptake” (derived from Maximum Cellular and Intestinal Uptake).

Compound Complex:  Not until the advent of Potentiated Magnesium (pMg), which is the only magnesium supplement that successfully overcomes magnesium’s inherent hydrophilic nature, were the full health benefits of magnesium recognized – simply because in the past not enough magnesium could be absorbed when taken.  Potentiated Magnesium^® overcomes the inherent hydrophilic nature of ordinary magnesium because of its unique (and patented) Compound Complex™ process, a double or “compound” process that, in effect, surrounds the inorganic magnesium molecules with organic vitamin C molecules, et al., in a very unique way.  Thus, when taken, the intestinal tract initially only recognizes the organic vitamin C, which, in effect, disguises the magnesium.  The Compound Complex process supercharges each of the components, bringing magnesium to its full potential – hence, its name: Potentiated Magnesium – the potential it always had but simply went unrecognized because of magnesium’s inherent hydrophilic nature.  The Compound Complex process also imparts a Supercharged Synergy™ between all the nutrients in pMg, making each the most powerful and effective nutrient of their kind – the magnesium and vitamin C in pMg^® and the magnesium, vitamin C and zinc in Go To The MAX^®.  (Potentiated Magnesium^®, pMg^® and Go To The MAX^® are the registered trademarks of Maxcelint Laboratories Inc.)

Potentiated Magnesium (pMg) & Go To The MAX (MAX):  pMg (supercharged magnesium and vitamin C) primarily supports normal cardiovascular health and function, normal respiratory function, and supports the human Health Span, while MAX (supercharged magnesium, vitamin C and zinc) primarily supports exercised muscle strength and endurance, and supports the normal function of the immune system.  Both contain a full measure of the world’s most advanced form of magnesium: Potentiated Magnesium, which also sparks energy production and supports normal cell function.  Potentiated Magnesium is regarded as the most advanced form of magnesium ever developed.

Magnesium Uptake:  Supplemental calcium (and the mineral zinc in amounts in excess of 140 mg per day) may interfere with magnesium uptake.  A large intake of dietary fiber has historically been associated with interference of supplemental magnesium uptake.  However, it has been found that psyllium fiber (because of it being a stronger hydrophilic than magnesium) may actually assist in magnesium uptake in those who are especially sensitive to magnesium.  The psyllium fiber is believed to divert the hydrophilic effect of the magnesium.  Adequate protein intake (especially supplemental whey or soy protein) is believed to enhance magnesium uptake, as does adequate vitamin D intake.  However, excess vitamin D intake can induce a magnesium deficiency.  (Reference: “Know the Importance of Taking Enough Magnesium with Your Vitamin D” Natural News.com, by Kerri Knox, RN, July 14, 2010.)

Deficiency:  It has been estimated that at least 75% of the population in the U.S. has a magnesium deficiency.  Historically, it has been thought that magnesium deficiency was quite rare, especially in healthy individuals who regularly consumed a balanced diet.  However, the intake of magnesium in the U.S. has steadily declined, from an average of 475-500 mg per day in 1900 to an average of 175-225 mg per day in 2000.  This is primarily because of plant foods being grown in mineral-depleted soil (organically grown plant foods are thought to have about 10 times more magnesium), a major shift in lifestyle (toward a more sedentary lifestyle), and dietary habits that have shifted toward a preponderance of processed foods, snack foods, and sodas.  Recent research strongly suggests that inadequate magnesium intake (the result of inadequate consumption of plant-based food), with concurrent excess calcium intake (the result of consuming too much animal-based food, i.e., meat and dairy, along with refined food, taking calcium supplements, and drinking sodas which drains calcium from bones), on a daily basis, is at the very heart of unbalanced calcium metabolism, endothelial cellular dysfunction and damage, and dystrophic calcification – which are the well-known precursors to serious conditions (or greatly increase their risk) that especially affect the cardiovascular system and kidneys, and which has reached epidemic proportions.  Because magnesium is involved in such a large number of metabolic/enzymatic processes (more than 300), a magnesium deficiency may result in metabolic abnormalities.

Conditions that can increase the risk of magnesium deficiency include: Kidney dysfunction, chronic alcohol beverage or regular soda consumption, chronic or long-term use of diuretics, excess intake of vitamin D, intake of calcium in supplement form, regular consumption of calcium-based antacids (i.e., antiacids), regular consumption of calcium “fortified” foods (but not calcium that is naturally present in food), inadequate consumption of magnesium-rich foods (plant-based foods, especially dark-green leafy vegetables such as spinach, kale, and the sea-plant kelp), poor intestinal absorption that tends to accompany aging, and any condition that affects or causes compromised intestinal absorption of nutrients.

Ongoing low blood levels of magnesium (hypomagnesemia) causes: (1) Low blood levels of calcium (hypocalcemia), despite adequate dietary calcium intake; (2) Decreased production and/or secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH), which affects, among other things, calcium metabolism; (3) Low blood levels of potassium (hypokalemia), which affects cellular membrane electrolyte potential and cellular metabolism; (4) Retention of sodium, which affects cellular membrane electrolyte potential, nutrient absorption and transport, blood volume and blood pressure; and (5) Causes or increases neurological and muscular problems, such as an irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia), tremor (the “shakes”), muscle spasm, tetany (muscle twitches, spasms and cramps, especially of the hands, feet, face or lyrnax, i.e., the voice box), and is considered a factor in restless leg syndrome (the often violent movement of the legs especially during sleep).

Severe magnesium deficiency is known to cause a loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, personality changes, affect normal vasodilation (blood vessel expansion), affect normal respiratory function, and affect normal heart function and heartbeat.

According to several studies, inadequate dietary magnesium: (1) Increases the risk of heart dysfunction; (2) Reduces the normal function of the endothelial cells that line the artery walls (that comes into direct contact with the bloodstream) which lays the groundwork for calcification; (3) Is associated with insulin resistance and blood sugar problems; (4) Influences bone matrix, bone mineral metabolism, and bone mineral density (insufficient magnesium contributes to the bones becoming brittle and hence more susceptible to fracture); (5) May be a factor in recurrent migraine headaches; and (6) Appears to be a contributory factor in chronic respiratory problems where airway passage constriction is involved.

Food Sources:  Plant foods and especially leafy green vegetables, 100% whole grains, legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans), avocados, cocoa, nuts, seeds, and seafood.  Because magnesium is an integral part of the green plant pigment chlorophyll, green vegetables are the richest natural source of magnesium (especially dark green vegetables such as spinach, kale, and the sea vegetable kelp).  The darker the green color the more the chlorophyll content, and the more chlorophyll the more naturally present magnesium (it is the centrally located magnesium atom that holds the chlorophyll molecule together).  Thus, if it is a plant food and it is green then it contains chlorophyll, and if it contains chlorophyll then it contains magnesium.  Unrefined grains, bran, legumes, cocoa, nuts and seeds also have a high magnesium content.  Animal foods (meat and dairy) have moderate amounts of magnesium, but it is overshadowed and not properly balanced because of the excess calcium and phosphorus content.  Refined foods have the lowest (or non-existent) amount of magnesium.  Unrefined sea salt and hard water, with its naturally occurring mineral content, contains slight to moderate amounts of magnesium (distilled water contains none).  In addition to magnesium, cocoa also contains healthful flavonoids.  It is thought that the daily consumption of a one ounce piece of dark chocolate that contains 60% to 70% cocoa solids may help support normal cardiovascular health.

RDA:  420 mg of magnesium per day for adult men, and 320 mg of magnesium per day for adult women.

UL:  350 mg of magnesium per day has been set by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine as the highest level of magnesium intake per day that is the least likely to produce diarrhea or gastrointestinal disturbance (i.e., gurgling sometimes called “rumble gut”) in most individuals.  However, they also note: “…that there are some conditions that may warrant higher doses of magnesium under medical supervision.”

ALT:  Most nutritionally-oriented doctors and knowledgeable nutritionists recommend 1,000 mg of magnesium be taken per day.  However, because of the inherent hydrophilic nature of magnesium, that amount of magnesium supplementation is not usually possible to take – with Potentiated Magnesium^® (pMg) being the only exception.  Uptake research conducted with pMg^® has demonstrated that 1,000 mg of magnesium (from pMg) per day can be taken by approximately 90% of individuals without producing any deleterious side effects, including diarrhea, several have taken up to 2,000 mg of magnesium per day (from pMg) for more than 10 years duration, and up to 3,000 mg of magnesium per day (from pMg) for more than one year – with no deleterious side effects of any kind.  Quite to the contrary, the routine taking of 1,000 mg or more of magnesium per day from pMg has demonstrated health benefits not previously recognized, simply because that amount of magnesium could not previously be taken without producing diarrhea.  Potentiated Magnesium has demonstrated it to be the only magnesium supplement that can be taken daily in meaningful amounts by most people without producing a laxative effect.  It was found that even those who are ultra-sensitive to magnesium can still substantially boost their magnesium intake with pMg by following a few simple guidelines (detailed in “How To Take pMg or MAX”).  Potentiated Magnesium is regarded as the world’s most advanced form of supplemental magnesium.

TOX:  Because of its inherent hydrophilic nature (attracts and holds water in the GI tract), magnesium in supplement form tends to produce diarrhea and/or gastrointestinal disturbances in most healthy adults in amounts of 300 mg to 500 mg per day – with the only known exception being Potentiated Magnesium (pMg).

The kidneys help regulate the blood level of magnesium.  Those who have compromised kidney function should not take any amount of magnesium in supplement form (not even pMg) without their doctor’s supervision and guidance.  To do so markedly increases the risk of an abnormal increase in the blood level of magnesium (called hypermagnesemia) that can result in abnormally low blood pressure (known as hypotension, not to be confused with hypertension which is high blood pressure) that can cause lethargy, confusion, disturbances in normal heart function and heartbeat rhythm, and further deteriorate kidney function.  Severe low blood pressure can cause muscle weakness, difficulty breathing, and even cardiac arrest.  Because older adults are more prone to compromised kidney function, it is generally deemed prudent for all those aged 65 or older to take magnesium supplements only with their doctor’s knowledge and guidance.  Of course, any new supplement regimen should not be started without doctor approval.

Magnesium supplementation can interfere with the absorption of certain medications, which could reduce their effectiveness.  This can usually be overcome by taking the magnesium and the meds at least two hours apart.  Likewise, certain meds and supplemental calcium may interfere with the uptake of magnesium.  Your doctor or pharmacist can provide proper guidance for the interference potential of magnesium supplements and particular medications.

Magnesium as it naturally occurs in food is not associated with any adverse effects, except for large intakes of chocolate (cocoa, the primary ingredient in chocolate derived from roasted and ground cocoa beans, has a moderately high magnesium content), which has been known to produce a laxative effect.

Magnesium Status Assessment:  Because the majority of magnesium is utilized inside cells, the measure of magnesium in the bloodstream is not an accurate way to assess magnesium status in the body.  A much more accurate way is to measure the amount of magnesium in red blood cells. 

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Potassium

Potassium (K)  –  An essential cation (+) electrolyte mineral that supports water balance via balancing sodium levels, pH levels, cell-signaling and nerve impulse transmissions, energy production, and is vital for maintaining cellular membrane potential.  Potassium is one of the most important electrolyte minerals.

As with all electrolytes, potassium functions by dissociation (chemical separation) into electrically charged particles called ions when in solution (in the fluid environment of the body), thus making it capable of conducting electricity.  Ions gain their electrical charge (in solution) as a result of their atoms either gaining or losing one or more electron.  In a sense, dissociation in solution activates (electrically charges) mineral ions.  Before dissociation, mineral atoms are balanced with the same number of negatively charged electrons with the same number of positively charged protons, which results in the atoms being neutral (having no overall electrical charge).  However, when the number of electrons change (by dissociation in solution), the atom (or group of atoms) is imparted with an overall electrical charge, with the resulting electrical charge being either positive or negative depending on which predominates – more positive-charged protons than electrons results in an overall positive charge, while more negative-charged electrons than protons results in an overall negative charge.  A loss of electron(s) results in an overall positive (+) electrical charge (called a cation) because the positively charged protons in the atom predominate, and a gain of electron(s) results in an overall negative (-) electrical charge (called an anion) because the negatively charged electrons predominate.  The electrically charged electrolyte ions are vital for cell function and survival.

Potassium and sodium are two of the most important electrolyte minerals, and balance each other.

Potassium is the principal positively charged electrolyte ion in the fluid inside cells (intracellular), while sodium is the principal positively charged electrolyte ion in the fluid outside cells (extracellular).  There is a much greater concentration of potassium inside the cells than sodium (about 30 times more), and a much greater concentration of sodium outside the cells.  This concentration difference between potassium and sodium across cell membranes creates an electrochemical gradient known as the membrane potential.  Maintaining the sodium/potassium concentration gradient (membrane potential) is vital for sustaining cell function, health and life.  Specifically, the tight control of cell membrane potential is critical for nerve impulse transmissions, muscle contractions, and heart function.  One of potassium’s primary functions is to maintain the vitally important cell membrane potential.

The cell membrane potential is maintained by ion pumps imbedded within each cell’s membrane (typified by the sodium/potassium-ATPase pumps).  The ion pumps are powered by the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which provides the energy to pump sodium ions out of the cells in exchange for potassium ions.  This activity uses a lot of energy, accounting for at least 20% to 40% of the energy expenditure in a typical adult while at rest (the basal metabolism).  However, nature, in all of its inherent wisdom, has seen fit to help balance this high energy expenditure by indirectly using potassium in energy production.  Potassium is required for the catalytic activity of an enzyme (pyruvate kinase) that is important in the metabolism (use) of carbohydrates (the primary energy nutrient), with such enzyme being involved in ATP energy production.

Deficiency:  Low blood levels of potassium (hypokalemia) can cause or contribute to: Fatigue, muscle weakness, muscle cramps, gastrointestinal discomfort or pain (such as bloating, cramps, and constipation), and contribute to high blood pressure (hypertension).  Severe hypokalemia can cause muscular paralysis or cardiac arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat) that can be life-threatening.  Conditions that can increase the risk of hypokalemia include: Diuretics use, alcoholism, severe vomiting, severe diarrhea, overuse of laxatives, eating disorders (such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia), depletion or inadequate intake of the essential mineral magnesium, excess sodium intake, inadequate consumption of fruits and vegetables (the best source of potassium), and excess consumption of licorice which contains a compound (known as glycyrrhizic acid or glycyrrhizin) that increases the urinary excretion of potassium (licorice extracts that have had the glycyrrhizin removed, known as deglycyrrhizinated licorice or simply DGL, are the preferred form of licorice extract used in GI tract protective supplements, specifically because they do not deplete potassium and as a result do not contribute to high blood pressure).  Research indicates that hypokalemia increases the risk of: Strokes, hypertension (especially with a concurrent increase in sodium intake), a reduction in bone mineral density, and an increase in urinary calcium excretion (which increases the risk of kidney stones).

Food Sources:  Plant foods, and especially fresh fruits and fruit juice, fresh vegetables, and legumes.  Pomegranate (and its juice), banana, baked potato (with skin), and dried fruit are especially rich sources of potassium.  Food (fruits and vegetables) is the best source of potassium.  High doses (more than 99 mg per day) of potassium supplements should only be taken with the guidance of a nutritionally knowledgeable medical doctor.

AI:  4,700 mg of potassium per day from fruits and vegetables.  This amount of potassium intake is based on intake levels that have been found to lower blood pressure, reduce salt (sodium chloride) sensitivity, and minimize the risk of kidney stone formation.

UL:  Excess intake of potassium in supplement form can disrupt normal heartbeat rhythm, and supplemental amounts as low as 10,000 mg a day can be deadly.  Supplemental amounts need to be guided by a nutritionally knowledgeable medical doctor.  Potassium that is naturally present in fruits and vegetables poses no known health risk.

ALT:  Potassium supplements have 99 mg per capsule.  Because of the potential for serious health risks, high doses (more than 99 mg per day) of potassium supplements should only be taken with the guidance of a nutritionally knowledgeable medical doctor.  Potassium that is naturally present in fruits and vegetables (the preferred source) poses no known health risk.

TOX:  Highly elevated concentrations of potassium in the blood (hyperkalemia) will occur when potassium intake exceeds the capacity of the kidneys to eliminate it, and can result from compromised kidney function (acute or chronic kidney failure), the use of diuretics, and insufficient production or secretion of the hormone aldosterone (produced and secreted by the adrenal glands that sit atop the kidneys) which facilitates the potassium/sodium balance in the kidneys.  Supplemental doses of potassium as low as 10 grams (10,000 mg) per day can cause adverse reactions, the most serious of which is an irregular heartbeat (heartbeat arrhythmia) that can be life-threatening.  Oral intakes of potassium around 18 grams (18,000 mg) taken at one time by individuals not accustomed to high intakes of potassium can cause severely elevated blood levels of potassium, even in those with normal kidney function, and can cause cardiac arrest.  Symptoms of hyperkalemia (high blood potassium) may include tingling of the hands and feet, fatigue, muscle weakness, muscular paralysis, and an irregular heartbeat.  The most serious side effect of excess blood potassium is the disruption of normal heartbeat rhythm.  Common adverse reactions to potassium supplements include gastrointestinal (GI) tract disturbances, such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea.  Ulcers in the GI tract have reportedly occurred with the use of enteric-coated or time-released potassium tablets.  To avoid possible GI tract side effects, it is prudent to not take enteric-coated or time-released potassium tablets, and to take potassium supplements with or immediately after meals.  Those with compromised kidney function, and those taking potassium-sparing medications, should be closely monitored by their doctors to prevent hyperkalemia and to avoid the potentially serious side effects that accompany it.  Several drugs are known to increase the risk of elevated blood potassium, and several drugs are known to increase the risk of low blood potassium.  Your doctor and pharmacist are your best guides to avoid potential drug interactions with potassium.  Potassium that is naturally present in fruits and vegetables (the preferred source) poses no known health risk.

Potassium and magnesium have a natural synergy for cardiovascular health and function.

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Sodium

Sodium (Na)  –  An essential cation (+) electrolyte mineral that works closely with the mineral chloride, supports water balance, pH levels, cell-signaling and nerve impulse transmissions, energy production, and is vital for maintaining cellular membrane potential.  Sodium is balanced by potassium.  Excess intake of sodium disrupts water balance, causes fluid retention and swelling of tissues (edema), and contributes to high blood pressure (hypertension).  Sodium is one of the most important electrolyte minerals, plays a vital role in several life-sustaining processes, and is tightly regulated by several mechanisms.

As with all electrolytes, sodium functions by dissociation (chemical separation) into electrically charged particles called ions when in solution (in the fluid environment of the body), thus making it capable of conducting electricity.  Ions gain their electrical charge (in solution) as a result of their atoms either gaining or losing one or more electron.  In a sense, dissociation in solution activates (electrically charges) mineral ions.  Before dissociation, mineral atoms are balanced with the same number of negatively charged electrons with the same number of positively charged protons, which results in the atoms being neutral (having no overall electrical charge).  However, when the number of electrons change (by dissociation in solution), the atom (or group of atoms) is imparted with an overall electrical charge, with the resulting electrical charge being either positive or negative depending on which predominates – more positive-charged protons than electrons results in an overall positive charge, while more negative-charged electrons than protons results in an overall negative charge.  A loss of electron(s) results in an overall positive (+) electrical charge (called a cation) because the positively charged protons in the atom predominate, and a gain of electron(s) results in an overall negative (-) electrical charge (called an anion) because the negatively charged electrons predominate.  The electrically charged electrolyte ions are vital for cell function and survival.

Sodium and potassium are two of the most important electrolyte minerals, and balance each other.  Chloride, an important negatively charged anion electrolyte mineral, also works closely with sodium.

Sodium is the principal positively charged electrolyte ion in the fluid outside cells (extracellular), including in the fluid portion of blood (plasma*), while potassium is the principal positively charged electrolyte ion in the fluid inside cells (intracellular).  There is a much greater concentration of sodium outside the cells than potassium, and a much greater concentration of potassium inside the cells than sodium.  This concentration difference between sodium and potassium across cell membranes creates an electrochemical gradient known as the membrane potential.  Maintaining the sodium/potassium concentration gradient (membrane potential) is vital for sustaining cell function, health and life.  Specifically, the tight control of cell membrane potential is critical for nerve impulse transmissions, muscle contractions, and heart function.  One of sodium’s primary functions is to maintain the vitally important cell membrane potential.

*Blood plasma (55%) is the liquid part of blood that contains blood cells and blood clotting factors (45%).  Blood serum is the clear liquid part of blood that does not contain the blood cells and blood clotting factors.  The blood cells are red blood cells (erythrocytes) that transport oxygen throughout the body, white blood cells (leukocytes) which are part of the immune system that help protect the body from bacterial and viral infectious invaders, and platelets (thrombocytes) and fibrinogen which are the blood clotting factors.  The average adult human body contains about 5.2 liters (about 5½ quarts) of whole blood.  There are about 5.5 million blood cells per cubic millimeter of blood, are produced at the rate of more than 100 billion a day, and are produced in the bone marrow (the spongy center of bone) from hematopoietic (blood-forming) stem cells.  The purpose of the blood is to provide a fluid medium (the bloodstream) to transport nutrients to the cells, such as oxygen, food molecules (glucose from carbohydrates, fatty acids and glycerol from fats, amino acids from protein, enzymes and vitamins), electrolyte ions (from minerals), hormones (secreted from endocrine glands), and to provide heat throughout the body (generated by cellular metabolism) which is the basis of why humans are called “warm blooded,” and for the bloodstream to transport waste (such as urea and carbon dioxide) for removal.  The amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, known as blood gases, varies in response to several conditions that affect respiration, such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), congestive heart failure, and ketoacidosis (a wasting condition where the body is unable to use glucose as fuel, the result of inadequate insulin production, and uses body tissue as fuel instead, most commonly seen in Type I diabetes, alcoholism, and fasting).  In addition to transporting oxygen, the numerous red blood cells also support vascular tone.  When red blood cells undergo shear stress in constricted blood vessels and their oxygen-carrying hemoglobin molecules are low on oxygen, the red blood cells react by releasing substances (the energy molecule ATP and nitric oxide stimulating S-nitrosothiols) which causes the blood vessel walls to relax and dilate (vasodilation) – an especially important function for those with arterial plaque buildup, high blood pressure, sluggish blood flow, and/or a sensitivity to sodium.  Nitric oxide triggers vasodilation while ATP provides the energy to do so.  The sodium and fluid content of blood affects its viscosity (thickness), as does the over-consumption of dietary fat (especially saturated animal fat and trans fat).  The heart, the hardest working organ in the body, pumps blood at an average speed of about 30 centimeters per second, making a complete circuit of the entire vascular system in about 20-30 seconds (physical activity increases the speed).

The cell membrane potential is maintained by ion pumps imbedded within each cell’s membrane (typified by the sodium/potassium-ATPase pumps).  The ion pumps are powered by the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which provides the energy to pump sodium ions out of the cells in exchange for potassium ions.  This activity uses a lot of energy, accounting for at least 20% to 40% of the energy expenditure in a typical adult while at rest (the basal metabolism).  However, nature, in all of its inherent wisdom, has seen fit to help balance this high energy expenditure by indirectly using potassium in energy production, and using sodium (and chloride) in nutrient absorption and transport.  Potassium is required for the catalytic activity of an enzyme (pyruvate kinase) that is important in the metabolism (use) of carbohydrates (the primary energy nutrient), with such enzyme being involved in ATP energy production.

Sodium plays an important role in the absorption of the mineral chloride (from salt), amino acids (from protein), glucose sugar molecules (from carbohydrates), and water.  Chloride is an important part of the gastric juice hydrochloric acid (HCl), which aids in the breakdown, digestion and absorption of several nutrients.  Hydrochloric acid in the stomach (in dilute form) is formed when chloride ions combine with hydrogen ions, which, after helping to digest food in the stomach, is neutralized by sodium bicarbonate after leaving the stomach (bicarbonate is the main alkaline buffer for acid-base balance, i.e., pH balance).  Thus, both sodium and chloride are important to digestion and nutrient uptake.  Sodium chloride (NaCl) is ordinary table salt.

Sodium is an important positively charged (+) cation electrolyte, while chloride and bicarbonate are important negatively charged (-) anion electrolytes.  Because opposite electrical charges naturally attract, and acid and alkaline (base) substances tend to neutralize, sodium and chloride readily bond forming a salt (an acid/base compound that contains a mineral), which is the origin of how sodium chloride became known as “salt.”  To distinguish between them, sodium chloride is the only compound known as “salt,” with the other compounds (such as sodium bicarbonate, et al.) known as “salts.”

The other major thing that sodium does is to help maintain fluid balance, blood volume, and blood pressure.  Because sodium is the primary determining factor of fluid volume outside the cells (extracellular), including the volume of the fluid portion of blood (plasma), several physiological mechanisms that regulate blood volume and blood pressure work by adjusting the body’s sodium content.  The circulatory system is a perfect example of the importance of sodium regulation.  Pressure sensors (barometer/receptors known as baroreceptors) in the circulatory system sense changes in blood pressure and send excitatory or inhibitory signals to the nervous system (and/or to the endocrine glands), which stimulates sodium regulation by the kidneys.  The kidneys are a key regulator of sodium and water balance in the body.  A significant decrease in blood volume or blood pressure signals the pituitary gland to secrete anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), which acts on the kidneys to increase the re-absorption of water.  Generally, sodium retention by the kidneys results in water retention in the tissues causing swelling (edema) and an increase in blood volume and thus an increase in blood pressure, while sodium loss results in water excretion by the kidneys.  Sodium regulation is important for proper fluid balance and maintaining normal blood pressure.

Deficiency:  Sodium deficiency, which generally is not caused by inadequate dietary intake, even in those who consume a very low sodium diet, causes abnormally low blood sodium (hyponatremia).  Hyponatremia may result from increased sodium loss (such as from prolonged physical activity involving heavy sweating), increased fluid retention or inadequate fluid excretion (such as from compromised kidney function), hormone secretion dilution (such as a diluted secretion of anti-diuretic hormone, which is associated with disorders that affect the central nervous system, but such dilution can also be caused by excess water consumption), and the regular use of certain kinds of drugs (such as diuretics or NSAIDs).  It is thought that the regular use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that contain ibuprofen (such as Advil and Motrin) or naproxen (such as Aleve), may increase the risk of exercise-related hyponatremia by impairing normal water excretion.

Conditions that can increase the loss of sodium include prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, excessive and persistent sweating, the regular use of diuretics or NSAIDs, and some forms of kidney disease.

Symptoms of hyponatremia include headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps, fatigue, mental disorientation, and fainting.  Severe or acute hyponatremia may cause swelling of the brain (cerebral edema), seizures, coma, brain damage, and can be fatal if not immediately corrected.

Food Sources:  Omnipresent in most processed, manufactured, packaged, canned, pickled, cured and snack foods.  Most sodium comes from salt (there is about 590 mg of sodium in only ¼ teaspoon of salt).  Most salt comes from the salt added to processed and manufactured foods, rather than from salt added at the table or during home cooking.  The lowest sodium intakes are associated with diets that place an emphasis on unprocessed plant-foods, especially fresh fruits, vegetables, and legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans).  As a seasoning, unrefined sea salt, with its full spectrum of naturally occurring mineral content, is thought to be a better alternative than ordinary table salt (which contains only sodium and chloride).  Unrefined sea salt (such as “Redmond RealSalt,” “Himalayan Pink” or “Celtic Sea Salt”) is distinguished by its light brown or pink color with mineral specks, rather than the white color of ordinary refined table salt.

AI:  For adults age 19-50 = 1,500 mg of sodium per day (3,800 mg of salt per day).  For those age 51-70 = 1,300 mg of sodium per day (3,300 mg of salt per day).  For those age 71 and older = 1,200 mg of sodium per day (3,000 mg of salt per day).  Since the sensitivity to the blood pressure-raising effects of sodium consumption increases with age, diets that are low in sodium (about 1,200-1,300 mg per day) and rich in potassium (about 4,700 mg per day from plant-foods) may be especially beneficial for older adults (over 50 years of age).

UL:  2,300 mg of sodium per day; 5,800 mg of sodium chloride (salt) per day.  There is about 2½ times more chloride than sodium in salt.  To determine the approximate amount of salt in food, simply multiply the sodium content (listed on the label) by 2.5.  As an example, if a particular food has a listed amount of sodium at 10 mg per serving, then that serving contains about 25 mg of salt (sodium chloride).  And remember, the amount of sodium listed on food labels is per serving, not for the whole container of food.

TOX:  Excess dietary sodium causes an increased risk of high blood pressure, an increase in urinary excretion of calcium (which can weaken bones and may contribute to kidney stone formation), and may increase the risk of serious gastric conditions.  Excess intakes of sodium lead to an increase in extracellular (outside the cells) fluid volume as water is pulled from the cells to maintain normal sodium concentrations (the water acts to dilute the sodium concentration in the face of excess sodium intake).  This increase in fluid volume cause tissues to swell and is what is known as edema, which is also a sign that the heart is not functioning normally, a condition known as congestive heart failure where blood tends to pool in the legs.

An abnormally high sodium concentration in blood plasma (the fluid part of blood) is known as hypernatremia and generally develops from excess water loss, which is frequently accompanied by an impaired thirst mechanism or lack of access to adequate water.  However, as long as the kidneys are functioning normally, and water needs can be met, the kidneys can excrete the excess sodium and restore the system to normal (dehydration is the enemy of normal functioning kidneys).  Hypernatremia (high blood sodium), in the presence of excess fluid loss, may cause low blood pressure, dizziness, a diminished urine output, and fainting.  Severe hypernatremia may cause tissue swelling (edema), high blood pressure, a rapid heart rate, difficulty breathing, convulsions, coma, and if not corrected, death.  Hypernatremia is rarely caused by excessive sodium intake.

Chronic inadequate water intake by those with normal functioning kidneys causes dehydration which can cause kidney malfunction and lead to kidney failure.  Because normal sodium and fluid levels rely on normal functioning kidneys, in end-stage renal failure (kidney failure) impaired urinary sodium excretion can lead to fluid retention, edema, high blood pressure, or congestive heart failure if salt and water intake are not medically restricted.

Although not considered a carcinogen itself, regular high intakes of salt or heavily salted foods (such as bacon or salted fish) is thought to increase the risk of serious gastric conditions in susceptible individuals in the presence of the Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) bacteria that may reside in the stomach.  It is thought that high concentrations of salt may damage the protective mucosal barrier that lines the stomach, potentially increasing H. pylori stimulated chronic inflammation, thus increasing the risk of peptic ulcers and promoting genetic damage to the stomach lining.  Foods that typically contain high amounts of salt (such as salted, smoked, and picked foods) may also contain known carcinogens, such as nitrosamines, compounding the risk.  It is believed that diets that contain generous amounts of fresh fruit and vegetables, especially cabbage and cabbage juice, may have a protective effect against gastric ulcers and other serious gastric conditions.

The H. pylori bacteria, the well-established cause of most gastric ulcers, produces ammonia that weakens the stomach’s protective mucus coating and causes damage to the cells that line the stomach, which can cause gastritis (inflammation of the mucous membrane that lines the stomach).  Years of persistent gastritis and cell damage produces a stomach environment that is thought conducive to carcinogenesis.  The World Health Organization (WHO) has recently classified the H. pylori bacteria as a Group A carcinogen (so classified when there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals, and when there is strong evidence of an agent’s involvement in the mechanism of carcinogenicity in humans).  In addition to gastric ulcers, gastritis, stomach cell damage, and an unhealthy stomach environment that may lead to other serious gastric conditions, it has been suggested that the H. pylori bacteria may contribute to similar problems in the intestines.  Recent research has discovered that the introduction of the amino acid glutamine, in supplement form as L-glutamine, appears to stimulate ammonia detoxification in the stomach, the same as it does in the liver, by reducing the ammonia level produced by the H. pylori bacteria.  The amino acid glutamine is naturally present in animal foods (and in whey protein), but plant foods tend to contain very little (the highest amount of glutamine naturally present in plant foods is found in raw spinach, raw curly parsley, and raw cabbage).  Supplementation with L-glutamine has demonstrated a reduction in H. pylori-produced ammonia levels in animal models, and it is thought in humans may reduce the risk of gastric ulcers, gastritis, stomach cell damage, may produce a more healthful GI tract environment, and may help reduce the risk of GI tract carcinogenesis, in addition to helping to detoxify the liver and help support exercise-stimulated muscle growth.  (Reference: Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, May 15, 2009, “Glutamine Supplements Show Promise in Treating Stomach Ulcers” Journal of Nutrition, May 2009)  However, while glutamine supplementation has been used to help maintain the health of the mucosa, as well as to inhibit muscle wasting in those who are critically ill (a large percentage of glutamine resides in muscles), there remains some question whether or not glutamine supplementation is appropriate for those who already have active colon tumors.  Some clinical studies suggest that glutamine supplementation may actually stimulate the growth of some tumors.  More clinical research is needed to determine if glutamine supplementation is safe to use in those with active colon tumors.  Glutamine supplementation is also contraindicated in those with cirrhosis of the liver or kidney disease.  An amino acid known as S-methyl methionine (SMM), which is naturally present and abundant in raw cabbage and its juice, has demonstrated symptomatic relief and even complete healing of peptic ulcers within 2 weeks or less by the consumption of 5 ounces (1½ ounces, four times a day) of fresh cabbage juice daily.  The SMM in raw cabbage juice is believed to stimulate the production of the natural mucus that coats the mucous membranes that line the stomach and protects it from strong digestive acids.  (Reference: Alternatives, Jan. 2010, Vol. 13, No.7, page 56)

Habitual high sodium intake contributes to chronic high blood pressure (hypertension), which is known to damage the heart (and compromise its normal function), damage the kidneys (which can eventually lead to kidney failure), and damage the blood vessels (with structural and functional changes of the large arteries), with such damage greatly increasing the risk of various cardiovascular conditions.  Blood pressure is the pressure exerted against the walls of the blood vessels by blood flowing through them.  High blood pressure is when the systolic pressure (the higher number) is consistently 140 or higher, and the diastolic pressure (the lower number) is consistently 90 or higher (120/80 is considered normal blood pressure).

A decreased sodium intake, balanced with adequate dietary potassium (from plant-foods) and adequate magnesium intake (from plant-foods and pMg) is believed to help reduce the risk of high blood pressure, kidney failure, reduce the incidence of kidney stones in those prone to kidney stone formation, and reduce the risk of varoius cardiovascular conditions.

(See “Optimum Sodium & Potassium Intake for Healthy Blood Pressure & Cardiovascular Function” for more information.)

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Chloride

Chloride (Cl)  –  An essential anion (-) electrolyte mineral that works in conjunction with sodium, and when combined with sodium is ordinary table salt (sodium chloride).  Chloride is an important part of the gastric juice hydrochloric acid (HCl), which aids in the breakdown, digestion and absorption of several nutrients.  Hydrochloric acid in the stomach (in dilute form) is formed when chloride ions combine with hydrogen ions, which, after helping to digest food in the stomach, is neutralized by sodium bicarbonate after leaving the stomach.  Thus, both sodium and chloride are important to digestion and nutrient uptake.  Chloride, like bicarbonate, is an important negatively charged anion electrolyte and is used in cellular metabolism (energy production), supports acid-base balance (pH balance) and central nervous system activity, works closely with sodium, and, like sodium, blood levels are tightly regulated by the kidneys (with a normal blood reference range of 95-105 mEq per liter of blood).  It typically enters the body as sodium chloride (salt) and dissociates (chemically separates) when in water solution.  Chloride ions interact with several minerals, such as potassium, and also with the amino acids gama-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine.  GABA is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter that regulates excitability throughout the nervous system, and is directly responsible for muscle tone.  Glycine is a major component of structural collagen (about 35%), and, like GABA, is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, especially used in the spinal cord, brainstem, and the retina portion of the eyes.  Potassium chloride (KCl) is available as a sodium-free salt substitute, but should not be overused as it is toxic in large amounts (see “Potassium” for details). 
Food Sources:  Salt. 
AI: 1,800 mg to 2,300 mg of chloride per day; 3,000 mg to 3,800 mg of sodium chloride (salt) per day.  There is about 2½ times more chloride than sodium in salt. 
UL:  3,500 mg of chloride per day; 5,800 mg of salt per day.
TOX:  It is believed that excessive amounts of chloride contribute to the same problems associated with excessive sodium intake (see “Sodium” for details).  Note that potassium chloride in concentrated form is highly toxic (it is what is used in judicially-mandated lethal injection executions, and medically-necessary fetal abortion procedures, to produce cardiac arrest).

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Phosphorus

Phosphorus (P)  –  An essential anion (-) electrolyte mineral that functions primarily as phosphate in the body.  Phosphate is phosphorus combined with oxygen.  The majority (about 85%) of phosphate resides in the skeletal structure of the body (bones and teeth) as part of the bone matrix as calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite).  The remaining balance (about 15%) is located primarily in cells where it is involved with energy production as phosphorylated compounds, such as the cellular energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and the muscle energy molecule creatine phosphate (phosphocreatine), and in cell membranes as phospholipids (phosphoric acid combined with fatty acids and glycerol derived from fat).  Proper bone mineralization could not take place without calcium phosphate, energy could not be produced without phosphorylated compounds, and the protective cell membrane could not be formed without phospholipids.  Phosphate is involved with the molecular structure of DNA and RNA (their nucleic acids are long chains of phosphate-containing molecules).  A number of enzymes, hormones, and cell-signaling molecules depend on phosphorylation for activation (cell-signaling is communication between cells so they are able to coordinate their behavior).  Phosphorus affects oxygen delivery to tissues by the red blood cells, and also helps maintain the acid-base balance (pH balance) by acting as one of the body’s most important buffers.  The regulation of blood calcium and phosphorus is interrelated through the actions of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and vitamin D.  Both PTH and vitamin D stimulate bone resorption (bone breakdown as part of the bone remodeling process), resulting in the release of calcium and phosphate into the bloodstream – PTH stimulates decreased urinary excretion of calcium, and increased urinary excretion of phosphorus (see “Calcium” and “Vitamin D” for more on bone remodeling). 
Deficiency:  A deficiency causes low blood levels of phosphate (hypophosphatemia).  Hypophosphatemia usually develops because too much phosphate is excreted (via the kidneys or in the stool) and can be caused by: Impaired kidney function, dialysis, an underactive thyroid gland, overactive parathyroid glands, chronic diarrhea, chronic use of diuretics, the long-term use of aluminum-containing antacids, or large amounts (or the long-term use) of the drug theophylline.  Chronic hypophosphatemia can result in a loss of appetite, muscle weakness, anemia, fatigue, soft and weak bones (osteomalacia, aka “adult rickets”), bone pain, an increased susceptibility to infection, numbness and tingling of the extremities, and difficulty walking.  Extreme hypophosphatemia can cause weakness, stupor, coma, and even death.  The phosphate level in blood can suddenly fall dangerously low (even life-threatening low) in those recovering from a bout of diabetic ketoacidosis, severe alcoholism, severe burns, or recovering from starvation or anorexia (where the introduction of a normal diet can drive an already low phosphate level even lower, in a phenomenon known as “re-feeding syndrome”).  Low phosphate levels can result in an irregular heart rhythm (arrhythmia) that can be life-threatening.  The phosphorus in legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans), grains, nuts and seeds is only about 50% bioavailable because humans lack the enzyme (phytase) necessary to fully liberate it from phytate.  Phytate (aka phytic acid or inositol-phosphate) is the principal plant storage form of phosphorus, is found in the hulls of legumes, grains, nuts and seeds, and can bind a certain amount of calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc and niacin, thus interfering with their full uptake.  However, intestinal flora (the friendly microorganisms normally present in the intestinal tract), or the introduction of probiotics (from the consumption of live cultures, i.e., the lactobacillus acidophilus and/or bifidobacterium bifidum bacteria strains most often used in yogurt production or available in supplement form), help to liberate the phytate-bound nutrients thus assisting in their uptake (probiotics are also useful to replenish the intestinal flora after taking a course of antibiotics which tend to dramatically diminish the intestinal flora population). 
RDA:  700 mg of phosphorus per day. 
Food Sources:  Most foods contain some amount of phosphorus.  Animal foods (dairy, meat, and fish) are especially rich sources of phosphorus.  Sodas (diet and regular) and most commercially prepared food contain large amounts of phosphorus (in the form of phosphoric acid and polyphosphate food additives), making it easy for those who don’t consume a properly balanced diet to consume excess amounts of phosphorus.  Canned sodas are believed to be particularly unhealthy because they have been found to contain detectable levels of the hormone-disrupting substance bisphenol A (BPA). 
UL:  The Tolerable Upper Intake Level of phosphorus in those with normal functioning kidneys is 4 grams (4,000 mg) per day for those age 19-70, and 3 grams (3,000 mg) per day for those 71 and older.  However, recent research has revealed that chronically high intake levels of phosphorus may be a strong contributory factor in drawing calcium from bones (which weakens them) and contributes to unbalanced calcium metabolism (the underlying cause of dystrophic calcification that can affect the cardiovascular system and the kidneys), especially when the primary intake source of phosphorus is from the excess consumption sodas (regular and diet sodas) and animal foods, i.e., meat and dairy products (see “Unbalanced Calcium Metabolism” for more details). 
TOX:  Excess phosphorus intake and excess phosphate in the blood can have serious health consequences.  High blood levels of phosphate (hyperphosphatemia) suppress the conversion of vitamin D to its active form by the kidneys (see “Calcium” and “Vitamin D” for more details).  Potassium supplements (or potassium-sparing diuretics) taken with a phosphate may result in high blood levels of potassium (hyperkalemia), which can result in potentially life-threatening heartbeat arrhythmias (see “Potassium” for more details).  Those taking such a combination need to be closely monitored by their doctor.  Chronic hyperphosphatemia can lead to dystrophic calcification (calcium deposits in soft tissues), primarily affecting the cardiovascular system and the kidneys.  Hyperphosphatemia is associated with kidney dysfunction and arterial calcification.  Dietary factors that are thought to cause or contribute to hyperphosphatemia include high intakes of fructose (i.e., high fructose corn syrup, aka “corn sugar”), and especially the high intake of phosphoric acid from sodas (diet and regular), and from phosphate additives in a large number of commercially prepared foods.  The regular intake of high fructose corn syrup (especially with a concurrent low intake of the essential mineral magnesium) causes an increase in the urinary loss of phosphorus and a negative phosphorus balance – a fructose phenomenon known as “phosphate trapping.”  The most serious side effect of abnormally elevated blood levels of phosphate is the calcification of non-skeletal tissues (dystrophic calcification), most commonly affecting the heart, the vascular system, and the kidneys.  The only known way to overcome dystrophic calcification is by consuming proper nutrition, exercising regularly, getting adequate sleep, managing stress, and having an optimum daily intake of the essential mineral magnesium, such as Potentiated Magnesium (pMg).

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Zinc

Zinc (Zn)  –  An essential mineral that supports the immune system, reproductive system, brain and nerve function, muscle function, normal DNA replication, helps maintain healthy skin, bones and teeth, plays an important role in growth and development, and has an antioxidant protective effect on DNA which helps support normal cellular aging.  Zinc has a particular synergy with vitamin C that when taken together strongly supports the immune system, which may be an especially important consideration in this new era of potentially increased environmental radiation exposure.  When combined with magnesium, zinc especially supports exercised muscle strength and stamina (more than half the zinc in the body resides in muscle tissue, and magnesium is closely associated with muscle function).  On the cellular level, zinc is needed by all classes of enzymes as a catalyst for many vital chemical reactions, stabilizes the structure of several proteins, is involved in the structure and function of cell membranes, influences the release of certain hormones, increases fertility by promoting healthy sperm and eggs, helps regulate gene expression by acting as a protein transcription factor (binding to DNA and influencing the formation of specific proteins encoded by genes), is involved in cell-signaling (communication between cells so they can coordinate their behavior), plays a role in nerve impulse transmissions, and plays a role in normal gene-directed programmed cell death (apoptosis).  Zinc is believed to play a role in glucose metabolism and act as a catalyst for insulin secretion (Reference: “Effects of zinc supplementation on diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis;” Jayawardena et al.; Diabetology and Metabolic Syndrome 2012; reported in MedIndia Health Network, June 24, 2012).  Zinc interacts with the essential mineral magnesium to strengthen muscle function, enhance exercised muscle strength (both skeletal and cardiac), and improve physical endurance – such as with Go To The MAX^® – Potentiated Magnesium plus Zinc (MAX) when taken as directed (with such a magnesium/zinc combination becoming known among those who engage in regular physical activity as “the healthy alternative to steroids”).  In addition to zinc and magnesium, MAX also contains a new fully activated natural form of vitamin C for enhanced immune system support.  Zinc also interacts with: Vitamin A (which helps prevent night blindness); Copper (habitual high intakes of zinc of 50 mg or more per day, taken for 6 weeks or longer, can interfere with copper absorption, which can be avoided by taking 1-2 mg of copper per day, or consuming copper-rich foods such as shellfish, legumes, nuts, seeds, and beef liver); Iron (regular high intakes of elemental iron of 38-65 mg per day may decrease zinc absorption when taken in supplement form but is not affected by the iron that naturally occurs in food); and Calcium (high intakes of calcium may interfere with zinc uptake, especially when calcium is in combination with dietary phytic acid, which is the principal storage form of the mineral phosphorus found within the hulls of nuts, seeds and grains – see “Phosphorus” for more details).  Zinc plays an important role in immune system function, indirectly stimulates testosterone production, helps maintain a healthy prostate gland, and appears to be involved in proper insulin production.  Recent research conducted at the University of Michigan suggests that zinc helps the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas function normally by preventing the formation of dense amylin clumps that can inhibit normal insulin secretion (Reference: Journal of Molecular Biology, July 8, 2011 issue).  Zinc has been shown to decrease inflammatory C-reactive protein, lipid peroxidation, and inflammatory cytokines, and as a result appears to have an arterial protective effect (Reference: American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, June 2010, 91 (6), pages 1634-41).  Zinc intake of 10-20 mg within the first 24 hours of the onset of the common symptoms associated with the Winter season, and continued every 2-3 hours (up to a maximum of 80 mg of zinc per day, for no longer than one week), has historically been used and is believed to help reduce the duration and intensity of such symptoms by boosting the immune system.  Such short-term increases in zinc intake above the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (40 mg/day) has not resulted in reported serious side effects, though GI tract disturbances can occur at intake levels of 50 mg or more per day.  Zinc lozenges, though effective, can cause mouth ulcers.  Zinc nasal gels and nasal sprays, though usually effective, have been found to permanently damage the sensitive nerves in the nasal passages and as a result has caused an irreversible loss of the sense of smell (anosmia), which adversely affects the associated sense of taste and smell-memory recall (the sense of smell is strongly associated with evoking memories), thus it would be prudent to avoid the use of zinc applications in nasal passages.  Zinc and prescription meds:  Zinc taken with certain antibiotics (such as tetracycline or quinolone) can reduce the uptake of both the zinc and the antibiotic.  Zinc can interfere with the uptake of some drugs (such as peniciliamine).  Thiazide diuretics (such as chlorthalidone or hydrochlorothiazide) can deplete zinc in the body.  A qualified doctor or pharmacist can provide proper guidance when taking prescription meds.  
Deficiency:  A zinc deficiency impairs immune system function which increases susceptibility to a variety of infectious agents.  The zinc/immune system connection is especially important in light of the following: 18% of Americans report acquiring a dangerous infection following a medical procedure, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report that more than one hundred thousand (100,000) people die each year from hospital-acquired infections.  Delayed neurological and behavioral development has been seen in young children with a zinc deficiency.  Recent research indicates that zinc status affects cell-signaling systems that coordinate the body’s response to the growth-regulating hormone known as insulin-like growth facror-1 (IGF-1).  This could explain the adverse effects (impaired growth and development) seen in young children who have a zinc deficiency, and may help explain the exercised muscle strength and endurance gains seen in adults who take a magnesium/zinc supplement at bedtime after exercising earlier in the day (exercise-stimulated muscle growth, recovery, and strength gains actually occur during sleep as the body replenishes and rebuilds).  Poor zinc nutritional status adversely affects both male and female fertility, and poor maternal zinc nutritional status has been associated with a number of adverse outcomes of pregnancy.  Because it is believed that zinc and copper compete for absorption in the digestive tract, an excess intake of one may result in a deficiency of the other. 
Food Sources:  Meat (especially red meat), eggs, pumpkin seeds, and seafood.  Shellfish are a rich source of zinc, with oysters being the richest known source (one medium-size cooked oyster contains about 13 mg of zinc, compared to a 3 ounce serving of cooked beef which contains about 6 mg of zinc).  Because oysters are the richest food source of zinc, and zinc is involved in testosterone production (in both men and women) and is important for the reproductive system, oysters have gotten the somewhat deserved reputation as being an aphrodisiac.  Legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans), milk, and nuts contain moderate amounts of zinc.  It would be prudent for strict vegetarians (vegans) to take supplemental zinc on a daily basis. 
RDA:  8 mg of zinc per day for adult women, and 11 mg of zinc per day for adult men. 
UL:  40 mg of zinc per day. 
ALT:  30-40 mg of zinc per day.  40 mg of zinc per day taken with magnesium at bedtime has demonstrated improved skeletal muscle function, and increased exercised muscle strength, endurance, and recovery in those engaged in regular exercise or physical activity.  10-20 mg of zinc taken every 2-3 hours, up to a maximum of 80 mg of zinc a day, for no longer than one week, is believed to help boost the immune system to help overcome the common symptoms associated with the Winter season.  Go To The MAX is regarded as the most effective vitamin C, magnesium and zinc combination because of its unique Compound Complex process which supercharges each nutrient in MAX – providing the perfect nutrient balance for the support and normal function exercised muscles, and the support and normal function of the immune system. 
TOX:  Acute zinc toxicity can occur with a single dose of 225-450 mg, which usually induces vomiting.  Mild GI tract distress has occurred at doses of 50-150 mg of zinc per day.  Long-term consumption (6 weeks or longer) of zinc at 50 mg or more per day has resulted in signs of copper deficiency, which is its major consequence.  Excess zinc intake can lead to a lack of proper muscle function and muscle coordination (ataxia), lethargy, and a copper deficiency which has been linked to neurological damage.  A copper deficiency can be avoided by taking 1-2 mg of copper per day, or by consuming foods rich in copper (such as shellfish, legumes, nuts, seeds, or beef liver), and an adequate intake of magnesium will help support normal muscle function.  High intakes of zinc can interfere with copper and iron absorption, and vice versa, because they all compete for the same intestinal absorption sites.  While zinc generally supports a strong immune system, it is curious to note that a high intake of zinc is associated with a more rapid progression and poorer survival rate in those who are infected with the HIV/AIDS virus.  Because the immune system tends to diminish in its ability to fend off infectious agents as we age, it is especially prudent for older adults to maintain an adequate zinc intake.

Go To The MAX^® – Potentiated Magnesium plus Zinc (MAX) contains the most powerful and effective form of zinc ever made, and is balanced with the most powerful and effective form of magnesium and vitamin C ever produced in nutritional supplement form.

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Iron

Iron (Fe) –  An essential mineral that supports red blood cell production and function.  Iron is an essential component of hundreds of proteins and enzymes, and is best known for its role in oxygen transport as part of the oxygen-carrying pigment in blood known as hemoglobin (the primary protein found in red blood cells), and as part of myoglobin (the oxygen transport and short-term storage molecule in muscle cells to meet the demand for more oxygen in working muscles).  The iron-containing protein in hemoglobin and myoglobin, that is responsible for oxygen transport and storage, is heme.  Two-thirds of the iron in the body is in the red blood cells (in the heme portion of hemoglobin).  Each milliliter (ml) of blood, with a hemoglobin concentration of 150 grams per liter of blood, contains 0.5 mg of iron.  Each 500 ml of blood contains 200-250 mg of iron.  Heme-containing compounds (proteins or enzymes) are critical to cellular energy production through their roles in mitochondrial electron transport involved in the production of the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP).  The mitochondria are each cell’s tiny organ-like “power plant” structures known collectively as organelles, with each different kind of organelle having a distinct purpose that maintains the cell’s dynamic functional quality.  There are several individual mitochondrion in each cell, with the continuously functioning heart muscle cells having the most mitochondria at about 5,000 per cell (compared to only a couple hundred mitochondria in skeletal muscle cells).  Some heme-containing enzymes have both antioxidant functions and beneficial pro-oxidant functions (i.e., oxidants that have a beneficial effect).  Certain heme-containing enzymes (such as catalase and peroxidases) help protect against the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide, a potentially damaging reactive oxygen species (ROS) (which are also known as oxidants), while other heme-containing enzymes catalyze other oxidants that actively kill bacteria that neutrophil white blood cells have engulfed.  Thus, such heme-containing enzymes are effective antioxidants and support the immune system.  Iron is involved in red blood cell formation, and when the internal oxygen supply is low (a condition known as hypoxia) iron is involved in compensatory responses to hypoxia by stimulating iron-containing enzymes that increase red blood cell production.  Iron-dependent enzymes are required for DNA synthesis (formation), cellular growth, reproduction, healing, and the proper function of the immune system.  Messenger RNA (mRNA) is involved in key proteins in the regulation of iron metabolism and storage, and the transport of iron to cells.  Iron interacts with: Vitamin A (vitamin A improves iron status, while a vitamin A shortage may exacerbate iron deficiency anemia); Calcium (high calcium intakes may decrease iron absorption when they are taken together); Copper (copper is required for normal iron metabolism, iron uptake, and iron transport to bone marrow for red blood cell formation); and Zinc (high intakes of iron supplements with the concurrent intake of zinc supplements, taken on an empty stomach, inhibits zinc uptake – but has no effect when they are taken with food).  Things that can interfere with dietary iron uptake include: 1. Having compromised intestinal tract function (such as from “celiac” condition, an autoimmune disorder where the consumption of gluten-containing foods such as wheat and barley damages the nutrient-absorbing intestinal villi which results in nutrient malabsorption); 2. An intestinal infection caused by the H. pylori bacteria (the bacteria believed to be responsible for peptic ulcers and suspected in more serious intestinal disorders); 3. Gastric bypass surgery (which can compromise the GI tract uptake of nutrients); 4. Strict vegetarians (vegans), because iron from plant foods is less efficiently absorbed than iron from animal foods; 5. Engaging in regular intense endurance exercise (which creates a demand for more iron); and, 6. Preparations that decrease stomach acid, such as antacids, may interfere with iron uptake.  The iron in supplements, and added to foods as “fortification” (known as non-heme iron), is influenced in a positive way by the uptake enhancers vitamin C, meat, fish and poultry, and is influenced in a negative way by the uptake inhibitors soy protein, nutrient-binding phytate (see “Phosphorus” for phytate details), and the polyphenols found in some fruits, vegetables, coffee, tea and wine (but which can be offset by vitamin C if taken at the same time). 
Deficiency:  Inadequate iron causes iron deficiency anemia (the condition of having less than the normal number of red blood cells or heme-rich hemoglobin in the blood, resulting in diminished oxygen transport).  Symptoms of iron deficiency anemia include: Fatigue, a rapid heart rate (the heart tries to compensate by pumping more blood), heart palpitations, rapid breathing upon physical exertion, reduced muscle energy, and a diminished physical and mental work capacity.  Anemia can also be caused by other than inadequate iron, such as: A vitamin B12 deficiency (pernicious anemia), a vitamin B12 and folic acid deficiency (megaloblastic anemia), abnormal hemoglobin formation (sickle cell anemia), rupture of red blood cells (hemolytic anemia), chronic bleeding or acute blood loss, and diseases that affect bone marrow (the production site of red blood cells).  The type and cause of the anemia should always be medically determined, rather than assuming it is iron deficiency anemia, because the taking of iron supplements without a doctor’s guidance and supervision can be harmful. 
Food Sources:  Tofu (soybean curd), oysters, blackstrap molasses, legumes, potatoes (with the skin), meat (especially red meat), prune juice, dried fruit, fish and seafood, poultry, and nuts.  The iron in animal foods (meat, poultry and fish) tends to be better absorbed than the iron in plant foods.  The iron that is naturally present in food is preferred to iron supplements and the iron added to foods as fortification.  Vitamin C assists in iron uptake. 
RDA:  8 mg of iron per day for adult males age 19-50.  15 mg of iron per day for adolescent females (age 14-18) and 18 mg of iron per day for adult females age 19 to approximately age 50.  Females have a higher requirement for iron (than males) during their years of menstruation because of the monthly blood loss.  The RDA for all adults, age 51 and older (and post-menopause females) is 8 mg of iron per day.  Adult men and postmenopausal women tend to consume too much iron, while women during their years of menstruation tend to consume too little iron (the RDA is a good guideline).  The preferred source of iron is from food. 
UL:  45 mg of iron per day for those in good health (but can cause iron overload, an unhealthy condition). 
ALT:  Supplemental amounts of iron are unnecessary for those in normal good health who consume a properly balanced diet.  Those healthy adults not at risk of iron deficiency anemia (adult men and postmenopausal women) should avoid excess iron intake to help avoid the possible connection between high iron intake levels and increasing the risk of cardiovascular conditions, colorectal conditions, and neurodegenerative conditions (iron is required for normal brain and nerve function through its involvement in cellular metabolism, as well as the synthesis of neurotransmitters and the nerve-protective myelin sheaths that surround and insulate nerve fibers; however, excess iron is suspected of increasing the risk of the conditions indicated).  Therefore, to avoid iron overload, adult men and postmenopausal women should not take supplemental iron (without their doctor’s guidance), instead relying on the iron that is naturally present in consumed food as their iron source.  Those with hereditary iron overload syndrome (hemochromatosis), or have cirrhosis of the liver (irreversible scarring of the liver that causes abnormal liver function brought on by chronic alcohol consumption or viral hepatitis B or C), and take supplemental iron are believed to have an increased risk of even more serious liver conditions, and may increase the incidence of colorectal conditions or the occurrence of polyps.  The best source of iron is dietary iron from a varied and well-balanced diet. 
TOX:  Supplemental amounts of iron can accumulate and cause health problems.  Excess amounts of iron are toxic.  The taking of iron supplements may cause gastrointestinal (GI) tract irritation, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or constipation, especially if taken on an empty stomach.  Excess dietary iron (and copper) intake has been associated with a reduction of antioxidant activity and an increase in cardiovascular health problems.  Those with hereditary conditions of iron overload (hemochromatosis), and those with conditions of compromised liver function (cirrhosis), may experience adverse effects at iron intakes well below the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of 45 mg per day.  Excess iron intakes are believed to substantially increase the risk of several health conditions (indicated above under “ALT”).  The best way to avoid iron overload, and the potential health risks associated with iron overload, is to not take iron supplements (unless under the guidance and supervision of a medical doctor), and instead rely on the iron that is naturally present in food as part of a varied and well-balanced diet, such as the MediterrAsian Diet.  This is why many multivitamin/mineral supplements specifically exclude iron in their formulation.

The MediterrAsian Diet is a plant-based and seafood diet that consists of a variety of fresh veggies and fruits, legumes, fish and seafood, 100% whole grains, olive oil, nuts, seeds, a select few animal-based foods like fresh eggs, a little cultured nonfat dairy such as yogurt, a little soft cheese, occasional fresh meat, and contains very little, if any, refined carbs or sugar-laden foods, and no trans fats or hydrogenated oils.

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Iodine

Iodine (I)  –  An essential non-metallic trace element (trace mineral) that supports thyroid function, the nervous system, the reproductive system, energy production, and the skin.  Iodine is required for the formation of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).  Iodine is vital for the normal function of the thyroid gland, and it is an essential component of both the T3 and T4 thyroid produced/secreted hormones.  The regulation of thyroid function is a complex process that involves hormones secreted by the hypothalamus (known as TRH) and the pituitary gland (known as TSH), and works with selenium-containing enzymes (iodothyronine deiodinases) to help regulate a number of bodily processes, such as growth, development, energy, metabolism, and reproductive function.  Iodine is involved in the formation of myelin, the protective insulation that forms around nerve fibers, and is especially important during fetus and infant development of the central nervous system (the brain, spinal cord, and main spinal nerves).  The mineral selenium works closely with iodine in T3 and T4 thyroid hormone production.  Basically, it is the selenium-containing enzymes that catalyze (spark) the conversion of T4 into the active T3 hormone. 
Deficiency:  Dietary iodine deficiency results in inadequate production/secretion of the T4 hormone by the thyroid gland, which can lead to Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD) that includes: Insufficient thyroid hormone production/secretion (hypothyroidism), enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter), and varying degrees of growth and developmental abnormalities (including mental retardation) – especially during prenatal fetus and infant development.  IDD is recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a significant health problem for fetus and infant development in third-world countries.  Sufficient thyroid hormone, which depends on adequate iodine intake, is vital for normal brain development and function in the fetus and in infants.  Inadequate iodine intake in adults can result in inadequate thyroid hormone production, which may manifest as fatigue, slow response times, impaired mental function, and depression.  Iodine deficiency can increase the risk of the thyroid accumulation of environmental radioactive iodine (such as from an environmental discharge as a result of a nuclear reactor leak or accident), which greatly increases the risk of developing a radiation-induced thyroid disorder in adults, and makes children especially susceptible to such conditions.  Medically supervised intakes of 50-100 mg of potassium iodide (KI), given to adults within 48 hours before or 8 hours after radiation exposure, has significantly reduced the risk of developing a radiation-induced thyroid disorder.  It has been suggested that those with adequate daily iodine intakes (such as from kelp or kelp supplements) may be afforded a degree of protection from environmental radiation.  In addition to dietary iodine, it has recently been found that the antioxidants vitamin C and glutathione may also afford a degree of protection from ionizing radiation used in medical procedures such as X-rays, CT scans, and mammograms (Reference: “Antioxidants may protect the body from CT radiation” Life Extension Update, Mar. 29, 2011). 
Food Sources:  Kelp, seaweed, seafood, yogurt, milk, and iodized salt.  Potassium iodide or potassium iodate is what is typically added to salt to make it “iodized salt” (iodized salt typically contains about 77 mcg of iodine per gram of salt).  Because salt (sodium chloride) has a high sodium content, iodized salt is generally considered not a particularly healthful source of iodine.  The source of iodine in multivitamin/mineral supplements is usually either potassium iodide or kelp.  Kelp supplements provide a naturally rich source of iodine, as well as trace amounts of many other naturally occurring minerals, the result of growing in the world’s richest mineral environment – the ocean. 
RDA:  150 mcg of iodine per day for adults (220 mcg/day during pregnancy, and 290 mcg/day during breast feeding, to avoid fetus and infant IDD development problems). 
UL:  1,100 mcg (1.1 mg) of iodine per day for adults. 
ALT:  225 mcg of iodine per day for adults (with kelp supplements considered the best natural source). 
TOX:  Excess iodine intake has been associated with an increased incidence of certain forms of thyroid conditions.  Excess iodine can stimulate excess thyroid hormone production (hyperthyroidism), but which can also be caused by an overactive thyroid gland, or by too much thyroid-stimulating hormone replacement therapy, typically too high a dose of levothyroxine (Synthroid) used to treat hypothyroidism (low thyroid hormone production/secretion).  Levothyroxine is synthetic T4 thyroid hormone.  It converts in the body to the biologically active T3 thyroid hormone, which relies on the selenium-dependent enzymes for its conversion (thus, a selenium deficiency can exacerbate the effects of an iodine deficiency).  Excess iodine intake is most commonly associated with elevated blood levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is secreted by the pituitary gland in response to the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) secreted by the hypothalamus.  It is usually the TSH and T4 (and sometimes T3) blood levels that are measured to help doctors determine a proper diagnosis and how much thyroid hormone replacement medication to prescribe (usually Synthroid).   A TSH level below the normal range tends to indicate an overactive thyroid; while a TSH level above the normal range tends to indicate an underactive thyroid (only a medical doctor can make a proper diagnosis).  The long-term intake of thyroid hormone replacement medication may affect bone mineral density.  Thyroid hormone replacement therapy that is abruptly stopped can dramatically increase blood cholesterol levels.  (For a more comprehensive overview of the interconnected function and intricate balance of hormones in the human body see “The Schwarzbein Principle” and “The Schwarzbein Principle II” written by Diana Schwarzbein, M.D.)

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Selenium

Selenium (Se)  –  An essential antioxidant trace mineral that is vital to good health in small quantities but toxic in large quantities.  Selenium is incorporated into proteins (known as selenoproteins) that primarily function as antioxidant enzymes that help prevent cellular damage from free radicals, which are also known as oxidants or reactive oxygen species (ROS).  Enzymes are protein-based molecules that speed up (catalyze) a biochemical reaction (without change to itself) and are thus known as catalysts.  There are at least 25 selenoproteins (antioxidant enzymes) that have a variety of metabolic functions.  One of the most studied is a group of selenium-containing enzymes, known as glutathione peroxidases (GPx), that appear to function as an antioxidant: Within cells, outside of cells in the extracellular fluid and in the blood, in cell membranes, in the GI tract, and in the olfactory nerves that affect the sense of smell and smell-memory (the olfactory nerves are one of only two cranial nerves that bypass the brainstem and go directly to the brain, the other being the optic nerves of the eyes, and thus have a direct sense/brain connection).  Selenium is a functional part of enzymes that contribute to thyroid function.  It is the selenium-containing enzymes (iodothyronine deiodinases) that catalyze (spark) the conversion of the thyroid hormone known as T4 into the biologically active T3 thyroid hormone in the body.  Because of its role in the regulation of thyroid hormones, selenium is required for normal development, growth, and cellular and muscle metabolism – especially in children.  Selenium is believed to help support the immune system, help protect the health of men’s prostate gland, may afford a degree of protection from certain colorectal and lung problems, and has antioxidant properties that help protect the endothelial cells that line the interior of the arteries from the oxidative damage of lipids in the bloodstream (i.e., fat and cholesterol, specifically triglycerides and LDL cholesterol), with such lipid oxidation believed to contribute to arterial plaque formation and buildup (“lipid” is a chemical term for fats and fat-like substances in the body, and include fatty acids, cholesterol, phospholipids and triglycerides).  Selenium interacts with other nutrients, such as the mineral iodine (involved in thyroid function), supports the activity of vitamin E in limiting the oxidation of lipids that are in the bloodstream, is believed to help maintain, sustain, and reactivate the antioxidant properties of vitamin C, and interacts with the minerals copper, iron and zinc involved in cellular pro-oxidant/antioxidant redox balance.  A redox reaction (an abbreviated term for “oxidation-reduction” reaction) is how free radicals (oxidants) are formed: By the removal of one or more electron from a molecule or atom of a substance, and transferred to another molecule or atom of a different substance (when the substances come into contact with each other, forming a bond) – where the substance that loses the electron(s) is said to be oxidized, while the substance that gains the electron(s) is said to be reduced – with the redox reaction being at the very heart of oxidation (free radical formation).  The oxidation of metals (rust) is a visible redox reaction.  Antioxidants, such as vitamin C, Vitamin E, and the mineral selenium (et al.), are what scavenge (mop up) free radicals, by readily combining with the free radicals to prevent them from reacting with other molecules or atoms and thus neutralizing their potentially damaging effects.
Deficiency: Though rare in the U.S. (but common in countries where the selenium content in soil is known to be low, such as parts of China and other Asian countries), a selenium deficiency can lead to hypothyroidism (low thyroid hormone production/secretion), weaken the immune system, cause a weak, inflamed, enlarged, and poorly functioning heart muscle (cardiomyopathy, known as Keshan disorder in children raised in selenium-deficient parts of the world), cause possible mental retardation (especially in developing children), and may be a factor in the arthritic degeneration of articular cartilage of joints.  There is evidence that suggests that a selenium deficiency itself may not directly cause a particular health problem, but rather may make the body more susceptible to conditions caused by other nutritional, biochemical, or infectious stress or weakness.  Another possible problem that may cause a selenium deficiency is having a compromised gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which can inhibit selenium uptake.
Food Sources:  Grains, legumes, and nuts grown in selenium-rich soil, meat from animals that were fed grains grown in selenium-rich soil, organ meat, fish (such as salmon and halibut), shellfish (such as crab and shrimp), pork, and Brazil nuts.  Brazil nuts have an unusually high selenium content (as much as 544 mcg per ounce, which is only about 6 nuts), and therefore should be consumed sparingly to avoid selenium toxicity.  Selenium naturally occurs in such staples as corn, wheat, and soybeans in its organic form (known as selenomethionine), which is about 90% bioavailable.  Selenium supplements usually contain inorganic selenium (in the form of either sodium selenite or sodium selenate), which are about 50% absorbed or retained.  Both the organic selenium in food and the inorganic selenium in supplements are metabolized and used by the body. 
RDA:  55 mcg of selenium per day for adults. 
UL:  400 mcg of selenium per day for adults. 
ALT:  200 mcg of selenium per day for adults.  Those adults who take 200 mcg of selenium per day tend to have a lower incidence of cardiovascular problems (thought to be due to selenium’s antioxidant effect on triglycerides and LDL cholesterol, and the antioxidant protection afforded the endothelial cells that line the interior of the arteries), and certain kinds of colorectal, lung and prostate problems (thought to be due to selenium’s antioxidant effects). 
TOX:  A high intake of selenium is toxic.  High blood levels of selenium that are higher than 100 mcg per deciliter (dl) of blood (which corresponds to an intake of about 850 mcg of selenium per day) can cause a condition of toxicity known as selenosis.  Symptoms of selenium toxicity (selenosis) can include gastrointestinal upset, hair loss, white blotchy and/or brittle nails, skin rashes, a garlic breath odor, fatigue, irritability, nerve damage, and nervous system abnormalities.  Acute selenium toxicity (from very large doses of selenium many times more than the Upper Tolerable Intake Level of 400 mcg per day) can result in death.  Selenium toxicity is rare in the U.S., as long as those taking selenium supplements do not exceed the Upper Tolerable Intake Level of 400 mcg per day, or do not consume large quantities of Brazil nuts which usually contain a large amount of selenium.

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Copper

Copper (Cu)  –  An essential trace mineral that is the third most abundant trace mineral in the human body, most of which is located in the bloodstream attached to a blood plasma protein (known as ceruloplasmin).  Copper is a vital component of a number of important protein enzymes (known as cuproenzymes, which number more than 50) that are involved in: Energy production, connective tissue formation, bone formation and remodeling, iron metabolism, melanin formation, immune system function, formation and maintenance of myelin, gene transcription, works with the mineral iron, interacts with the mineral zinc, is involved with the proper function of the central nervous system, and the function and health of the cardiovascular system.  Enzymes are protein-based molecules that speed up (catalyze) a biochemical reaction (without change to itself) and are thus known as catalysts.  In energy production, copper-containing enzymes generate an electrical gradient used by the mitochondria organelles in cells (the cell’s “power plant”) to produce the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP).  In connective tissue formation, copper-containing enzymes are required for the cross-linking interconnection of collagen and elastin to form strong and flexible connective tissue to help maintain the structural integrity and functional elasticity of the connective tissue within the cardiovascular system, which facilitates the functional expansion and contraction of the heart and blood vessels.  In bone formation and remodeling, copper-containing enzymes work closely with vitamin C (a necessary ingredient) in collagen formation (the fundamental material of bone matrix construction), which supports bone strength and flexibility.  In iron metabolism, copper-containing enzymes assist in iron uptake and transport to the site of red blood cell formation in bone marrow.  In melanin formation, copper-containing enzymes are required for the formation of the melanin color pigment in hair, skin and eyes (the more melanin the darker the color; the less melanin the lighter the color).  In immune system function, low dietary copper intake may result in abnormally low numbers of neutrophil white blood cells (the most abundant white blood cells in the immune system that engulf and kill bacteria), which can adversely affect the functional ability of the immune system.  In the formation and maintenance of myelin, copper-containing enzymes are a required part of the healthy formation and ongoing maintenance of myelin, the protective insulation that surrounds nerve fibers which is primarily composed of phospholipids (the same protective structural component of cell membranes).  In gene transcription, copper is involved in copper-dependent gene transcription enzymes that either enhance or inhibit the transcription of certain specific genes, such as the extracellular (outside the cell) antioxidant superoxide dismutase (SOD) found at high concentrations in the lungs (but low levels in the blood), the antioxidant copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn SOD) found intracellular (inside the cell) in most cells in the body including the red blood cells, and the copper-containing enzyme catalase, an iron/heme-containing antioxidant enzyme that helps protect against the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide, a potentially damaging reactive oxygen species (aka oxidant or free radical).  Copper works and interacts with the mineral iron, which is necessary for normal iron metabolism, red blood cell formation, and heme production, with excess iron intakes interfering with copper absorption (heme is the iron-containing component of hemoglobin, the oxygen-transporting molecule of the red blood cells responsible for delivering oxygen throughout the body).  Copper interacts with the mineral zinc.  High intakes of zinc may result in a copper deficiency (habitual high intakes of zinc of 50 mg or more per day, taken for 6 weeks or longer, can interfere with copper absorption, which can be avoided by taking 1-2 mg of copper per day, or by consuming copper-rich foods such as shellfish, legumes, nuts, seeds, and beef liver).  In central nervous system function (function of the brain, brainstem, spinal cord, and main spinal nerves), copper-containing enzymes catalyze the conversion of neurotransmitters.  Neurotransmitters are chemicals released from nerve cells (that are located at the ends of nerve fibers) that transmit nerve impulse messages to other nerve cells (neurons), or to the cells of an organ or muscle, with such impulse messages either triggering or inhibiting an impulse in the receiving cell.  Some neurotransmitters are also hormones secreted by glands.  The main neurotransmitters are: Acetylcholine (heavily involved with heart and muscle fiber stimulation and function); dopamine (a hormone released by the hypothalamus gland that is involved with nerve impulse conduction and brain function that affects behavior, cognition, motor activity, motivation and reward, sleep, mood, attention and learning, and is stimulated by physical activity – with it being responsible for the condition known as “runner’s high” which is experienced by those who heavily engage in exercise); adrenaline (the “fight or flight” stress hormone released by the adrenal glands as a result of high-stress or exhilaration that heavily influences airway, heart, and blood vessel function), and is also known as epinephrine (“epi”) which is the synthetic chemical form of adrenaline (but the terms are often used interchangeably, with epinephrine or “epi” preferred by the medical community); norepinephrine (aka noradrenaline), a stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands that is the principle neurotransmitter of the sympathetic nervous system that influences blood pressure, the rate and depth of breathing, blood sugar, and intestinal activity; both adrenaline (80%) and norepinephrine (20%) are hormones produced and secreted by the adrenal glands (in addition to being important neurotransmitters); and serotonin, a brain-signaling protein that is produced in the central nervous system (15%) and in the GI tract (85%), that is stored in platelets so it can constrict blood vessels at injury sites (post-injury vasoconstriction), and affects emotional states, mood, sleep, sexuality, body temperature, appetite, aggression, anger, anxiety and depression (which is the basis for the use of “MAO inhibitors” as antidepressant drugs).  The copper-containing enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO) plays an important role in the use of the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin, and is involved in serotonin degradation.  MAO inhibitors increase concentrations of serotonin in the brain, as does psychedelic drugs (such as “LSD” and “Ecstasy”), but may have significant harmful side effects.  Such drugs taken in overdose (or taken by those who are especially sensitive to them) have caused acute – sometimes fatal – increases in blood pressure.  Serotonin is naturally produced in the body from the amino acid tryptophan, which is a common protein amino acid found in a wide variety of protein-based foods (particularly plentiful in chocolate, milk, eggs, fish, legumes and meat) and in dietary protein supplements (such as whey and soy protein), and explains the mild euphoria from eating chocolate (the so-called “feel-good” food) and the relaxing and sleep-inducing effect of drinking milk before bedtime.  Neurotransmitters are also intertwined with the function of the cardiovascular system.  Researchers believe that defective signaling of serotonin in the brain may be the root cause of “Sudden Infant Death Syndrome” (SIDS), and believe that abnormally low levels of serotonin in the brainstem (the part of the central nervous system that controls heartbeat and breathing) may be a contributory factor (if not the cause) of “Sudden Cardiac Death” (SCD) in otherwise seemingly healthy adolescents and adults.  Sudden Cardiac Death (aka “Sudden Cardiac Arrest”) isn’t the same as a “heart attack,” which is a plumbing problem (i.e., blocked blood flow), but rather an electrical problem that causes an erratic heartbeat.  It is thought that SCD may be responsible for as many as half of all cardiac related deaths, is believed to be caused by the malfunction of the heart’s electrical impulse system that regulates the heartbeat (which may be contributed to or even caused by abnormally low serotonin levels in the brainstem), and is most commonly characterized by an abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmia) called “ventricular fibrillation.”  Ventricular fibrillation (VF or “V-fib”) is where the blood-pumping ventricle heart chamber fibrillates (quivers) instead of contracting normally.  SCD is characterized by the sudden rapid and chaotic heartbeat of VF that causes the heart to quiver instead of its normal blood-pumping contraction/relaxation cycle, preventing the brain and heart (and the rest of the body) from getting their critically important supply of oxygen-rich blood.  It is thought that those most at risk for SCD have an abnormal heart rhythm of unknown cause, have an unusually rapid heart rate (tachycardia) even while at rest, and have an ejection fraction (the force with which the heart pumps or ejects blood) that is below the normal 55%, and especially if it is less than 40%.  Medications, such as “ACE inhibitors” (used for high blood pressure and congestive heart failure), “beta blockers” (used to help regulate the heart’s nerve function to help control high blood pressure, angina, and even social anxiety disorder), and “calcium channel blockers” (used to help stabilize calcium-sparked heart contractions, high blood pressure, and abnormal heart rhythms such “atrial fibrillation”), may help control factors that can lead to SCD.  Atrial fibrillation (AF or “A-fib”), which is different than VF, is the most common heartbeat arrhythmia, and is especially prevalent in adults over the age of 50.  Of course, any irregular heartbeat should be thoroughly evaluated by a medical doctor.  It is thought that the taking of 1,000 mg per day of the amino acid taurine, with 1,000 mg per day of the mineral magnesium may help support the normal function of the heart.  The essential mineral magnesium is a natural calcium channel blocker that has a beneficial impact on the normal function of the cardiovascular system (see “Magnesium” for more details). 
Deficiency:  A copper deficiency may result in anemia, low body temperature, weak bones, prominently dilated veins, a low white blood count, irregular heartbeat, and elevated blood cholesterol levels.  Clinical signs of copper deficiency include anemia that is unresponsive to iron therapy, but is correctible with copper supplementation.  A copper deficiency may result from a compromised gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which may result in abnormally low numbers of neutrophil white blood cells (the most common white blood cell) that would compromise the immune system, and may result in abnormalities of bone mineral density, bone formation, and bone remodeling.  Less common effects of copper deficiency include a loss of hair and skin pigmentation (not to be confused with the normal appearance of gray hair commonly seen in aging), neurological problems, and impaired growth.  Those most at risk of a copper deficiency are those with a compromised GI tract, taking excess zinc for long periods (50 mg or more of zinc per day for 6 weeks or longer), those with “cystic fibrosis” (a hereditary condition that causes the abnormal accumulation of mucus in the lungs, pancreas, and intestines, which causes difficulty breathing, recurrent lung infections, and problems with nutrient absorption), and high-risk infants and young children (such as premature infants, especially those with a low-birth weight, infants and young children with prolonged or frequently occurring diarrhea, and infants and children recovering from malnutrition).  Because it is believed that copper and zinc compete for absorption in the digestive tract, an excess intake of one may result in a deficiency of the other. 
Food Sources:  Copper is found in a wide variety of foods and is most plentiful in organ meat (beef liver), shellfish (oysters, crab and clams), nuts (cashews, hazelnuts and almonds), seeds (especially sunflower seeds), legumes (especially lentils and beans), with moderate amounts in wheat bran and whole grain products.  Copper supplements (commonly found in multivitamin/mineral supplements) are available as cupric oxide, copper gluconate, copper sulfate, or as a copper amino acid chelate (which is when an inorganic metal, such as copper, is chemically/covalently bound to an organic molecule, typically an amino acid, that may enhance or inhibit bioavailability, or may have no effect at all). 
RDA:  900 mcg (0.9 mg) of copper per day for adults. 
UL:  The Upper Tolerable Intake Level is officially at 10 mg (10,000 mcg) of copper per day for adults.  However, this amount (10 mg) in those with genetic disorders affecting copper metabolism, and even in healthy individuals, will probably be at an increased risk for adverse effects of chronic copper toxicity – even at much lower intake levels than the UL indicated (see “TOX” for copper below). 
ALT:  1-2 mg (1,000-2,000 mcg) of copper per day for adults.  Supplements typically contain 2 mg of copper (which is the amount usually found in full-spectrum multivitamin/mineral supplements). 
TOX:  Recent research indicates that the UL for copper may be significantly too high, even for healthy individuals, for optimum health.  Excess intakes of copper may affect iron and zinc metabolism, negatively impact the immune system, affect antioxidant status, can cause liver damage, adversely affect the central nervous system, increase oxidation of LDL cholesterol, and negatively impact cardiovascular health.  Excess dietary copper (and iron) intake has been associated with a reduction of antioxidant activity and an increase in cardiovascular problems.  An increased blood level of “free” (unbound) copper is associated with free radical activity and inflammatory conditions.  Severe copper toxicity may cause abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, severe liver damage, kidney failure, coma, and death.  A varied and well-balanced diet (such as the MediterrAsian Diet), with no more than 2 mg of supplemental copper per day, will provide an adequate copper intake level for most healthy adults without the risks associated with excess copper intake.  Copper naturally present in plant foods and seafood are not known to cause adverse effects.

The MediterrAsian Diet is a plant-based and seafood diet that consists of: A variety of fresh veggies and fruits, legumes, fish and seafood, 100% whole grains, olive oil, nuts, seeds, a select few animal-based foods like fresh eggs, a little cultured nonfat dairy such as yogurt, a little soft cheese, occasional fresh meat, and contains very little, if any, refined carbs or sugar-laden foods, and no trans fats or hydrogenated oils.

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Chromium

Chromium (Cr)  –  An essential trace mineral that is believed to be primarily involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates (carbs), and also involved in the metabolism of dietary fats and protein, although its mechanism of action in the body and the amounts needed for optimum health have not yet been fully discovered or well-defined.  There are two basic forms of chromium: A biologically active form naturally present in food (known as trivalent chromium), and a highly toxic form from industrial pollution (known as hexavalent chromium).  It wasn’t until 1959 that the biologically active form of chromium in food was identified as the active component in the so-called “glucose tolerance factor” – the result of studies done on the effect of chromium on insulin.  It was determined that chromium enhances the action of insulin.  Insulin is the pancreas secreted hormone that responds to increases in blood glucose (blood sugar) levels, the result of consuming food (especially carbs).  Glucose is the basic energy fuel of cells.  Ingested food stimulates specialized cells (known as beta-cells) in the pancreas to secrete the hormone insulin, which binds to specialized molecules imbedded on the surface of cells (known as insulin receptors), which activates the receptors to take up the glucose to provide the cells with a fuel source.  It is glucose that fuels cell function.  Through its interaction with insulin receptors, insulin provides cells with glucose for energy, and in so ushering the glucose into the cells prevents blood glucose (the glucose in the blood) from building up and becoming elevated in the blood vessels, which, when chronically elevated, can have a damaging affect on blood vessels and peripheral nerves – thus one of the main connections between blood sugar and cardiovascular problems.  In addition to its effect on ingested carbohydrates (the body’s preferred fuel source), insulin also influences the cellular metabolism of dietary fats (the body’s secondary fuel source) and protein (the body’s last fuel source).  An impaired glucose tolerance of the cell’s insulin receptors is known as “insulin resistance” (where the receptors literally resist the effect of insulin), and is now believed to be the forerunner to full-blown blood sugar problems.  This breakdown in the normal function of the cell’s insulin receptors is believed to be brought about by an habitual improper diet that is heavy in sugar, sugar-laden products, and refined carbohydrates (which are handled by the body the same as if they were sugar, which is transformed into glucose and dumped into the bloodstream very quickly) – and is thought to be the underlying cause of insulin resistance and blood sugar problems.  In effect, the more or less continuous intake of sugar and refined carbs desensitizes the insulin receptors, rendering them ineffectual at delivering glucose into the cells.  This results in insulin remaining in the bloodstream instead of being used by the cells, which causes damage to the blood vessels and nerves – and is thought may contribute to plaque buildup in the arteries, eye damage that may affect vision, and peripheral nerve damage that most affects the legs and feet – all of which are common conditions in those who have blood sugar problems.  At this time, the exact mechanism of action of how chromium functions remains unclear.  Equally unclear is the optimum amount of chromium intake, and what role chromium may (or may not) possibly have in the future prevention and/or remedy of insulin resistance or blood sugar problems.  In the past, chromium supplementation has been linked to increases in lean body mass in those who engaged in regular exercise, and also linked to weight loss in those who engaged in weight loss programs.  However, a close examination of the best designed and most comprehensive controlled studies indicates that increases in lean muscle mass or weight loss from taking chromium supplements are ineffective for such use, and may even pose certain health risks (see “TOX” below for more details).  In addition to chromium playing a role in glycolysis (the breakdown of glucose for cellular energy production), the essential mineral magnesium is also known to play an important role in glucose metabolism and energy production.  It is known that vitamin C and the B-complex vitamin niacin enhance chromium uptake.
Deficiency:  A deficiency of chromium in the diet appears to contribute to impaired glucose tolerance.  Impaired glucose tolerance (commonly referred to as “insulin resistance”) has been identified as a metabolic state between normal glucose use and an overt blood sugar problem.
Food Sources:  Chromium is widely distributed in food, but most foods contain only small amounts (usually around 2 mcg per serving).  Broccoli (at about 11 mcg per ½ cup) is the richest source of chromium, while grape juice (at about 8 mcg per cup) is also a good source of chromium.  Meat, whole grains, legumes, and certain fruits and vegetables tend to contain moderate amounts of chromium.  By contrast, foods that are composed of refined carbs (refined grain products, sugar, and sugar-laden foods) contain very little, if any, chromium. 
RDA:  None established. 
AI:  30-35 mcg of chromium per day for adult males, and 20-25 mcg of chromium per day for adult females. 
ALT:  200 mcg of chromium per day for adults. 
TOX:  The industrial pollution form of chromium (hexavalent chromium) is recognized as a carcinogen.  The form of chromium naturally present in food (trivalent chromium) is believed to pose no health risks in the amounts encountered in the diet.  Chromium supplements (that contain either chromium chloride, chromium nicotinate, chromium picolinate, or high-chromium yeast, that typically range from 50 mcg to 200 mcg of elemental chromium per dose) are generally regarded as safe in amounts up to 200 mcg per day (plus whatever amount might be consumed from food).  However, there have been a few isolated reports of serious adverse reactions, specifically involving the taking of high amounts of chromium picolinate, that have resulted in kidney failure and impaired liver function.  Therefore, it would be prudent for those with compromised kidney or liver function to only take chromium in supplement form under medical supervision.  A varied and well-balanced diet (such as the MediterrAsian Diet), with no more than 200 mcg of supplemental chromium per day, is currently thought to provide an adequate chromium intake level for most healthy adults without posing a risk of deleterious side effects.

The MediterrAsian Diet is a plant-based and seafood diet that consists of: A variety of fresh veggies and fruits, legumes, fish and seafood, 100% whole grains, olive oil, nuts, seeds, a select few animal-based foods like fresh eggs, a little cultured nonfat dairy such as yogurt, a little soft cheese, occasional fresh meat, and contains very little, if any, refined carbs or sugar-laden foods, and no trans fats or hydrogenated oils.

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Fluoride

Fluoride –  A nonessential trace mineral that in very small amounts provides bone and tooth enamel hardness, but in larger amounts is toxic.  Fluoride is a reduced form of the element fluorine.  Fluorine (F) is a chemical element that is naturally present in the earth’s crust, which in its elemental form is highly reactive and poisonous (it being the most reactive of all elements).  Fluorides are compounds that are formed when the mineral fluorine (a negative electrically charged anion) bonds with a positive electrically charged cation substance.  There are many different types of fluorides (fluorine compounds), several of which are used in more than 100 different industrial applications (such as Teflon non-stick coatings, Gor-Tex outdoor clothing, high temperature thermoplastics, used extensively in air conditioning and refrigeration, and used in surgical implants such as coronary bypass grafts, with elemental fluorine even been studied as a possible rocket propellant because of its exceptionally high inherent explosive impulse potential).  Fluorine is used as a chemical nerve agent as the constituent in the poison known as sarin (a highly toxic and corrosive liquid that readily evaporates into sarin gas).  Inorganic compounds of fluoride (such as sodium fluoride, stannous fluoride, and sodium MFP) are used in fluoride toothpaste and mouthwash as a preventative of tooth decay and dental caries (cavities).  Fluoride is used in fluoridated water to prevent cavities, and although successful at doing so, it has been controversial.  About 95% of fluoride in the body resides in the bones and teeth (as fluoroapatite), but is considered nonessential in the diet because humans do not require it for growth or to sustain life.  Apatite is the basic calcium-phosphate structural material of bone and teeth, with fluoroapatite (fluoride + apatite) being the fundamental strength-providing constituent of bone and tooth enamel.  Fluoride is naturally present in low concentrations in food and water, with the highest concentration in seawater, where its crystalline structure is the source of phosphorescence (a specialized type of photoluminescence, the study of which led to the landmark discovery of radioactivity in 1896), and is closely related to fluorescence, the glow-in-the-dark mineral fluorite (which is calcium fluoride).  It is fluoroapatite that hardens and strengthens tooth enamel (the hardest substance in the body), and stabilizes bone minerals within the bone matrix (the structural web of minerals that make up bone).  Clinical studies between 1950 and 1980, in 20 different countries around the world (including the U.S.), demonstrated that the addition of fluoride to community water supplies (0.7-1.2 ppm) reduced dental cavities by 40% to 50% in primary teeth (baby teeth), and by 50% to 60% in permanent teeth.  However, fluoride in drinking water to the extent of 2 ppm (parts per million) has caused permanent mottled tooth enamel in children acquiring their permanent teeth.  After being ingested and absorbed in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, fluoride enters the bloodstream where it is transported to, and quickly enters, mineralized tissues (bones and teeth), and at usual low dietary intake levels is believed to not accumulate in soft tissue and thus is considered not harmful.  An excess intake of fluoride is toxic. 
Deficiency:  The only clear effect of inadequate fluoride intake is an increased risk of dental cavities in both adults and children, and the possible effect of bones and teeth developing without their full degree of hardness (though this has not been demonstrated).
Food Source:  The major source of dietary fluoride in the U.S. is drinking water, which naturally contains varying small amounts of fluoride.  When water has been fluoridated (fluoride added), the amount of fluoride it contains is standardized to 0.7 ppm to 1.2 ppm, which is believed to reduce the incidence of tooth decay while minimizing the risk of dental fluorosis (mottled and discolored teeth) and other adverse effects.  Approximately 62% of U.S. households consume fluoridated water.  Most water-filtration systems, reverse osmosis systems, and distillation units, removes most of the fluoride in water.  Bottled water contains varying trace amounts of fluoride (except for distilled water which has had most of the minerals removed, including fluoride).  All plant foods, marine fish ordinarily consumed with their bones (such as sardines and canned mackerel), and some meat, naturally contain varying trace amounts of fluoride.  Foods that tend to have the highest trace amount of fluoride include: Tea, grape juice, canned sardines, seafood, and poultry.  Both of the minerals calcium and magnesium form insoluble complexes with fluoride and are capable of significantly decreasing fluoride absorption when present in the same meal (there are trace amounts of fluoride naturally present in many foods and most sources of drinking water). 
RDA:  Because it is considered a nonessential nutrient, no RDA for fluoride has been established. 
AI:  3-4 mg of fluoride per day for adults.  The average fluoride intake by adults living in fluoridated water communities ranges from 1.4 mg to 3.4 mg per day. 
UL:  10 mg of fluoride per day for adults. 
TOX:  An excess intake of fluoride is toxic.  The lowest dose of fluoride that is believed would trigger adverse effects is 5 mg per kilogram (kg) of body weight (which is about 340 mg for a 150 lb person), with the lowest potentially fatal dose of fluoride considered to be 15 mg/kg of body weight (which is about 1,022 mg for a 150 lb person).  Symptoms of acute fluoride toxicity include nausea, abdominal pain, and often vomiting, diarrhea, excessive salivation and tearing, and sweating as the body tries to rid itself of the poison.  The American Dental Association (ADA) has recommended that no more than 120 mg of fluoride (224 mg of sodium fluoride) be dispensed by dentists at one time, and common sense dictates that all fluoride-containing products be carefully stored away from children to prevent the possibility of acute fluoride poisoning.  Excess fluoride intakes, usually from swallowing fluoridated toothpaste (especially by young children) can cause dental fluorosis, which presents itself as a permanent white speckling or mottled discoloration appearance of the teeth (which is preventable by close parental supervision of young children while they brush their teeth).  Extreme dental fluorosis can cause permanent pitting of the teeth, but is rare in the U.S.  Consumption of fluoride from water (both naturally present fluoride in water or fluoridated water) is believed to pose very little risk of adverse effects.  Doctor-prescribed fluoride supplements, which has been used to treat weak bones, has been known to cause harmful effects to bones and cause unnatural calcium deposits in soft tissues (dystrophic calcification).  Serious side effects have been associated with high doses of fluoride supplements, such as GI tract irritation, joint pain in the lower extremities, the development of a calcium deficiency, and stress fractures.  Ironically, fluoride supplementation can increase bone mineral density but it does not improve bone strength or reduce the risk of bone fracture in older adults, rather it tends to make bones more brittle.  Fluoride supplementation is not an FDA approved treatment for a decrease in bone mineral density.  Fluoride supplementation is generally considered unnecessary (and unwise, especially since a varied and well-balanced proper diet provides an adequate intake of fluoride, and regular weight-bearing exercise naturally supports bone health and strength), but if taken it should be closely monitored by a well-qualified medical doctor to avoid the risks associated with the excess consumption of fluoride.

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Manganese

Manganese (Mn)  –  An essential trace mineral that in very small amounts supports energy production and antioxidant activity, but in larger amounts is toxic.  Manganese primarily functions as a coenzyme and enzyme activator that supports glucose metabolism, antioxidant activity, brain and nervous system function, and collagen production.  Manganese plays an important role in a number of diverse biological processes as a cofactor constituent of certain enzymes and as an activator of other enzymes, with perhaps its most important function being its involvement in energy production and its participation as an enzymatic antioxidant.  In energy production, manganese is a required part of the enzyme pyruvate kinase.  Pyruvate kinase is an enzyme that is involved in glycolysis, which is the breakdown of glucose (that originated from ingested carbohydrates) to the ketone body known as pyruvate that ultimately results in the release of usable energy in the form of ATP from the Krebs cycle (aka the citric acid cycle).  The Krebs cycle (which is the fundamental source of energy production in nearly all cells in the human body) is a complex series of chemical reactions that takes place within cells, where oxygen is utilized as part of the cellular respiration process, that converts biochemical energy from nutrients into the production of the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and also carbon dioxide as a waste product.  While ATP is primarily derived from the metabolic breakdown of glucose (glycolysis) from ingested carbohydrates, dietary fats and protein can also be used as energy sources.  The Krebs cycle takes place inside the cell’s mitochondria (the dynamic cellular “power plant” organelle), of which there are several mitochondria within each cell – all of which produce ATP and power cellular function.  Manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) is the principal antioxidant enzyme in the mitochondria.  Because the mitochondria consume more than 90% of the oxygen used by cells, they are especially vulnerable to oxidative stress by the superoxide radical (a major free radical) that is produced in the mitochondria during ATP synthesis (formation).  The manganese-containing enzyme MnSOD neutralizes the superoxide free radical.  A number of manganese-activated enzymes play an important role in the metabolism (functional use) of carbohydrates, protein amino acids, and cholesterol.  A manganese-containing enzyme (known as pyruvate carboxylase) and a manganese-activated enzyme (known as PEPCK) are critical in gluconeogenesis, which is the production of glucose (the body’s basic fuel) from non-carbohydrate nutrients such as protein amino acids and lipids (fats and sterols – sterols are fat-like substances such as cholesterol).  Another manganese-containing enzyme (arginase) is required for liver detoxification of ammonia that is generated during the metabolism of amino acids.  Manganese is a cofactor in a number of enzymes (known as glycosyltransferases) that are required for the formation of polymers of protein amino sugars and carbohydrate polysaccharides (sugar molecules) that are integral formation components of structural tissues such as bone and cartilage.  These sugar polymers are known as proteoglycans (a polymer is a large molecule that was formed by combining several smaller similar molecules together).  A common proteoglycan is glucosamine, the substance commonly seen together with chondroitin in joint formula supplements, that is naturally found in (and supports) healthy cartilage and bone formation.  Manganese is required for the activation of an enzyme (known as prolidase) that functions by making the amino acid proline available for the formation of collagen (a fibrous protein that is the main structural component of skin, bone, and other connective tissues).  It is thought that the manganese-activated enzyme prolidase may play a role in wound healing of skin tissue.  Manganese is known to interact with certain other minerals, such as iron, calcium, and magnesium.  Because iron and manganese share a common absorption and transport pathway, they tend to compete with each other for absorption.  Large intakes of iron can interfere with manganese absorption, and vice versa.  Because of the high alkalinity nature of calcium and magnesium, supplemental calcium intakes of 500 mg or more per day, and supplemental magnesium intakes of 200 mg or more per day, may slightly decrease manganese uptake (this is not a problem with pMg or MAX because their magnesium content is properly pH balanced with an abundant amount of vitamin C).  Magnesium-containing antacids and laxatives, or the commonly-prescribed antibiotic medication tetracycline, may decrease the absorption of manganese when taken at the same time. 
Deficiency:  The effects of a manganese deficiency in humans is not completely clear or well-understood, but a gross deficiency may involve impaired growth, impaired reproductive function, skeletal abnormalities, impaired glucose tolerance, altered carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, altered cholesterol levels, and may be a factor in the bone remodeling process.  A manganese deficiency has not been documented in those who consume a normal diet. 
Food Sources:  All plant foods are rich in manganese.  Vegetarians and those who emphasize whole grains in their diet may have an intake of manganese as high as 10 mg or more per day.  Especially rich sources of dietary manganese include whole grains, nuts, seeds, leafy green vegetables, and tea.  Foods that are high in phytic acid (see “Phosphorus” for phytic acid details), such as beans, nuts, seeds, whole grains and soy products, or foods that are high in oxalic acid, such as cabbage, spinach and sweet potatoes, may slightly inhibit the absorption of dietary or supplemental manganese, as does the tannins that are naturally present in tea.  Plant foods that are especially rich in manganese include: Oatmeal (cooked oats), wheat bran, whole grain products, pecans, pineapple and pineapple juice, brown rice, spinach, almonds, peanuts, sweet potato, beans and other legumes, green leafy vegetables, green tea, and, to a little lesser extent, black tea.  Several forms of manganese are available as supplements, including manganese gluconate, manganese sulfate, manganese ascorbate, or as a manganese amino acid chelate (which is when an inorganic metal, such as manganese, is chemically/covalently bound to an organic molecule, typically an amino acid, that may enhance or inhibit bioavailability, or may have no effect at all).  Full-spectrum daily multivitamin/mineral supplements typically contain 5-10 mg of manganese.  Some bone/joint supplements that contain glucosamine and chondroitin also contain manganese, some at excessively high levels in the 30-40 mg range, but it is unclear what benefit, if any, the added manganese may have.  Actually, such high intake levels of manganese are probably detrimental to health (see “TOX” below for details).  A decidedly better alternative may be where methyl-sulfonyl-methane (MSM) has been added to the glucosamine and chondroitin regimen, which has generally demonstrated a more beneficial effect (for joints) than when glucosamine and chondroitin are used without MSM. 
RDA:  Because a varied and well-balanced diet (especially a plant-based diet) is thought to supply an adequate level of manganese, no RDA for manganese has been established. 
AI:  2.3 mg of manganese per day for adult males, and 1.8 mg of manganese per day for adult females. 
UL:  11 mg of manganese per day for adults. 
ALT:  5-10 mg of supplemental manganese per day for adults (which is the same amount most full-spectrum daily multivitamin/mineral supplements contain).  Some health authorities recommend that no more than 2 mg of supplemental manganese, plus whatever amount is present in food, be consumed per day (vegetarians and those who emphasize whole grains in their diet may have an intake of manganese as high as 10-20 mg per day, just from food).  A manganese intake that is only from food consumption has reportedly not caused any adverse health effects. 
TOX:  Manganese in excess is toxic.  Excess intakes of manganese, either from concentrated supplement form or from contaminated drinking water, especially of long duration, is known to adversely affect the brain and liver.  High intakes of manganese (as well as inhaling manganese dust in a polluted environment) has resulted in producing multiple neurological symptoms, which has included poor motor control, tremors, difficulty walking, facial muscle spasms, irritability, aggressiveness, and even hallucinations.  Those with chronic liver problems (such as “cirrhosis” or liver failure) who consume large amounts of manganese are at a significantly increased susceptibility for manganese-based neurotoxicity, the result of a faulty functioning liver being unable to properly process manganese.  Newborns are also at an increased susceptibility for manganese toxicity due to their immature developing nerve cells and liver function.  Because the effects of manganese toxicity are thought to be cumulative, it may take several years before the neurotoxicity symptoms show up.  Even though vegetarians (who consume a manganese-rich plant-based diet) may consume upwards of 20 mg of manganese a day, the manganese that is naturally present in food is not known to cause manganese toxicity.  Only excess manganese supplementation, manganese contaminated drinking water, and the inhalation of environmental manganese dust, are known to result in manganese neurotoxicity.  Because impaired liver function can lead to a decrease in manganese excretion, which can result in an increase in manganese accumulation and thus increase the risk of manganese toxicity, those with compromised liver function (or older adults who may have decreased liver function) should only take manganese supplements under medical supervision.

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Molybdenum

Molybdenum (Mo)  –  An essential trace mineral that supports metabolism and cellular function.  It is believed that molybdenum only functions as a cofactor in a number oxidase enzymes that are important in certain chemical transformations and redox reactions, which directly involves molecular oxygen.  A redox reaction (an abbreviated term for “oxidation-reduction” reaction) is how free radicals (oxidants) are formed: By the removal of one or more electron from a molecule or atom of a substance, and transferred to another molecule or atom of a different substance (when the substances come into contact with each other, forming a bond) – where the substance that loses the electron(s) is said to be oxidized, while the substance that gains the electron(s) is said to be reduced – with the redox reaction being at the very heart of oxidation (free radical formation).  The oxidation of metals (rust) is a visible redox reaction.  Molybdenum is a critical cofactor in the enzyme sulfite oxidase that can convert harmful sulfite molecules into beneficial sulfate molecules.  Sulfites are a common preservative often used in wine and in various foods and medications, but can have adverse affects in the body.  Sulfates are sulfur-containing molecules, with sulfur being an essential element for life.  The enzyme sulfite oxidase is functionally important for the metabolism of the sulfur-containing protein amino acids methionine and cysteine, which are involved in homocysteine metabolism.  Homocysteine is an amino acid that when not properly metabolized can buildup in the blood and may contribute to damage of the endothelial cells that line the interior of the arteries, with such damage thought to contribute to plaque formation and buildup in the arteries.  Adequate intake of the B-complex vitamins B6, B12, and folic acid, along with an adequate intake of the methyl donors dimethylglycine (DMG) and trimethylglycine (TMG), are believed to help properly metabolize homocysteine.  Molybdenum is a cofactor in the enzyme xanthine oxidase that is involved in the breakdown of nucleotides, which are the structural units of nucleic acids, the precursors to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (the nucleic acid-containing molecule that is the major component of chromosomes and carries the genetic information code which passes hereditary characteristics from one generation to the next), and ribonucleic acid (RNA) (the nucleic acid-containing ribose, an organic crystalline sugar, found in all living things that is essential for protein synthesis).  The breakdown of nucleotides by the enzyme xanthine oxidase forms uric acid, which contributes to the antioxidant capacity of the blood.  In addition to the enzyme xanthine oxidase, molybdenum is also a cofactor in the enzyme aldehyde oxidase, and both of them catalyze hydroxylation reactions, such as their involvement in hydroxyapatite, the calcium-phosphate compound that is the main mineral component of bone and teeth that provide their structural rigidity (while the mineral fluoride provide their strength).  These two molybdenum-containing enzymes (xanthine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase) also play a role in the liver processing of drugs and toxins. 
Deficiency:  A dietary molybdenum deficiency has never been observed in healthy people.  Severe malfunction of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract may result in a molybdenum deficiency (along with producing a deficiency in several other nutrients).  A very rare inborn recessive trait error of metabolism that involves the loss of activity of the critically important sulfite oxidase enzyme can cause a gross molybdenum deficiency, the result of which has caused severe brain damage.  Fortunately, and in addition to this being a very rare condition (only a little more than 100 people worldwide are known to have this), a sulfite oxidase deficiency and a molybdenum cofactor deficiency can easily be diagnosed relatively early in pregnancy (10-14 weeks of gestation) through a prenatal screening test known as a chorionic villus sampling (CVS), which is where a very small sample of tissue is taken from the placenta for prenatal diagnosis of genetic disorders. 
Food Sources:  The richest source of molybdenum is legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans).  Whole grain products, bran, and nuts are considered good sources of molybdenum.  Animal foods, fruits, and most vegetables are generally low in molybdenum content.  Because the molybdenum content of plant foods depends on the molybdenum content of the soil they are grown in (all minerals in plant foods depends on the soil content), the molybdenum content can vary considerably.  Molybdenum in nutritional supplements is generally in the form of sodium molybdate, molybdenum ascorbate, or ammonium molybdate.  It is thought that most people in the U.S. consume sufficient molybdenum from the food in their diet, making supplementation with molybdenum generally unnecessary. 
RDA:  45 mcg of molybdenum per day for adults.  In studies it was determined that the dietary intake of molybdenum in the typical American diet averages 76 mcg per day for adult females, and averages 109 mcg per day for adult males.  Thus, the usual dietary intake of molybdenum in the diet is well above the RDA.
UL:  2,000 mcg (2 mg) of molybdenum per day for adults. 
ALT:  75-150 mcg of molybdenum per day for adults.  Most full-spectrum multivitamin/mineral supplements usually supply 130 mcg to 150 mcg of molybdenum per day. 
TOX:  High intakes of molybdenum can produce adverse affects.  Excess supplementation with molybdenum may affect uric acid levels.  Elevated uric acid levels can produce gout-like symptoms, such as painful inflammation of joints, especially affecting the big toe joint (a condition known as “podagra”).  (“Gout” is a disorder of uric acid metabolism that can lead to deposition of urate crystals in soft tissue and in the synovial fluid that lubricates joints, causing recurrent episodes of painful joint inflammation that typically affects the big toe joint 90% of the time, and if untreated can lead to joint destruction and kidney damage.)  Acute molybdenum toxicity can result from high supplemental doses of molybdenum that are above the Upper Tolerable Intake Level (UL) of 2 mg per day.  Such high intakes of molybdenum (above 2 mg per day) can cause neurological symptoms such as psychosis, seizures, and even hallucinations.  Molybdenum toxicity from food alone is unknown.

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Silica

Silica –  An essential trace mineral that is widely distributed throughout the body, primarily as a constituent of collagen and elastin – the main proteins of connective tissue that provide structural strength and functional flexibility – and is present in bones, teeth, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, blood vessels, skin, eyes, gums, nails and hair.  Silica is a form of the basic mineral silicon.  Silicon (Si) is a basic earth element (that is classified as a semi-metal metalloid) that very rarely occurs in its pure free form in nature, instead being combined with various other elements – most commonly with oxygen that forms silicon dioxide.  Silicon dioxide (SiO2) is a compound of silicon and oxygen that naturally forms when silicon is exposed to ambient air in the environment, and is commonly referred to as silica.  Silica is the most abundant mineral in the earth’s crust, commonly seen in nature as sand, the crystalline mineral quartz, and in the cell walls of a major group of phytoplankton algae (phyto = plant) which is basically seaweed.  Silicon is used extensively in the electronics industry as a semiconductor and insulator in integrated circuits (aka silicon chip, microchip, or simply “chip”), the result of it being able to readily form an outer “native oxide” when exposed to air, with its extensive use during the formative years of electronics in a particular region of Northern California being the basis for the colloquial name “Silicon Valley.”  Silicon, not to be confused with silicone (which is a heat-resistant silicon-based synthetic substance used in lubricants, resins, adhesives, industrial coatings, paints, water-repellent applications, and prosthetics), has several other industrial uses besides electronics, such as making various types of glass and is used extensively in construction materials (such as cement).  In toothpaste, hydrated silica is used as a mild abrasive for dental plaque removal.  In powered foods, silica is added as a free-flowing agent or to absorb water.  During the formation process of nutritional supplements and pharmaceuticals, silicon dioxide (which is often listed on the label simply as “silica”) is commonly added as a free-flowing agent.  In the human body, silica is a major component of collagen.  Collagen is the major protein substance of all connective tissue, and specifically supports the structural integrity of bones, teeth, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, blood vessels, provides the physical support for organs and muscles, and supports basement membranes.  Basement membranes are the fundamental and quite important membranes (made up of proteins held together by collagen fibers) that form a single-layer of cells that line the cavities and surfaces of organs (such as mucus membranes and skin) known as the epithelium, and form the single-layer of cells (the endothelial cells) that line the interior of blood vessels known as the endothelium.  It is this single-layer of basement membrane cells that facilitates the function and helps provide the protection of the body parts they line.  The endothelial cells that line the interior of the arteries are the very cells that the essential mineral magnesium (as a natural calcium channel blocker) helps protect the arteries from the damaging effects of unbalanced calcium metabolism.  The formation material for bones and teeth is collagen (formed from protein and vitamin C), which are hardened by minerals.  Basically, bones and teeth are “mineralized” collagen, with the degree of mineral concentration being what is known as “bone mineral density.”  Together, collagen (the basic protein-based material), vitamin C (the collagen formation catalyst), and minerals (the hardeners), are what constitute the “bone matrix” (the web-like lattice framework that forms the structure of bone, which surrounds the blood-cell-producing center portion of bone known as “bone marrow”).  Collagen is a fibrous protein substance (primarily made from the protein amino acids glycine, proline and lysine) and requires vitamin C as a formation cofactor.  The vitamin C deficiency condition “scurvy” is in fact a degenerative condition of collagen.  Collagen has been quite accurately described as the “glue” that holds the body together.  Basically, amino acids form the structural basis of collagen, collagen holds everything in the body together, vitamin C holds collagen together, and silica is the supporting structural and functional component of collagen – a perfect example of how nutrients work together and support body structure and function.  Silica is also a vitally important part of elastin.  Elastin is a special kind of connective tissue that provides functional flexibility, especially supporting the functional flexibility of the skin and blood vessels (there is actually more silica in the skin than in any other place in the human body).  Elastin is primarily composed of the amino acids glycine, proline, alanine, valine, lysine, and multiple molecules (known as tropoelastin molecules) that naturally possess an elastic quality.  The components of elastin bond together in multiple cross-links, which is what provides elastin’s functional elastic flexibility to the skin, blood vessel walls (elastin is particularly abundant in large blood vessels such as the aorta), the heart, the lungs, the bladder, the gastrointestinal tract (the stomach and intestines), elastic ligaments, and the tough yet flexible fibrocartilage of the intervertebral discs (that acts as a ligament that holds the vertebrae together).  Elastin tends to naturally deplete with age, resulting in the wrinkled and sagging appearance of aged skin (that is accelerated by overexposure to the sun, which is the basic cause of “sun damage” to the skin).  Elastin, though less abundant in the body than collagen, functions in connective tissues in partnership with collagen.  Silica is also an important part of keratin.  Keratin, which is found in hair, skin, nails and teeth, is an extremely strong protein substance that has unique properties that can be either soft and flexible (as is the case with hair and skin), or be hard and inflexible (such as with nails and teeth).  Keratin is composed of protein and a sulfur-containing substance (known as cysteine disulfide) that can be extremely strong as a result of the sulfur atoms bonding with each other forming a tough fibrous matrix.  Depending on the amount of cysteine disulfide that is in the keratin, it can be very strong and resist flexibility (such as in nails and teeth), or it can contain less cysteine disulfide and be softer and more flexible (such as in hair and skin).  Because of the high level of sulfur in keratin, it emits a distinct sulfurous odor if burnt (the unpleasant smell of hair that may have gotten singed).  Topically applied skin and hair care products that contain collagen, elastin or keratin (which are derived from animal sources) have not scientifically demonstrated any benefit for skin or hair, while the application of the silica-rich herb known as “horsetail” (that has been made into a paste with water and applied topically) is thought to facilitate wound healing of the skin, and the consumption of gelatin (processed animal collagen) is known to help keep hair and nails moist and appears to facilitate and encourage their growth.  Silica is involved in the synthesis (formation) of collagen, elastin and keratin, and may also be involved in the body’s manufacturing process of antibodies, and as a result may support the immune system and its function.  Although its use alone to treat thinning bones is controversial, silica may be useful as part of a multi-mineral complex used to help support bone strength.  Silica can also be thought of as a catalyst in the functional use of other mineral elements.  Nobel Prize winning chemisty Professor Adolf Butenandt, while conducting research into silica at Columbia University in 1972, determined that silica plays an important role in the calcium-magnesium balance, and assists in the assimilation of phosphorous.  
Deficiency:  There are no known cases of overt silica deficiency.  However, it is reasonable to assume that a low silica intake from an improper diet will likely contribute to a weakened condition in all the bodily structures where silica is normally present, and probably contribute to a reduced level of function of those structures.  Thus, inadequate silica in the diet may contribute to disorders of the joints, bones, ligaments, tendons, cartilage, skin, hair, nails, eyes, gums, teeth, lungs, GI tract, basement membranes, and may contribute to a weakened cardiovascular system.  A low or marginal intake of silica may be a contributory factor in plaque formation and buildup in the arteries, the well-known precursor to blood flow and cardiovascular problems.  Inadequate dietary silica may weaken the structural integrity of the blood vessels and reduce their functional elasticity and flexibility, and may be a contributory factor in “sub-scurvy” – the condition of low or marginal vitamin C intake that sets the stage for arterial damage, with such damage and its resulting inflammation being the hallmark of arterial plaque formation and buildup.  A recent study has suggested that adequate intakes of silica may help reduce the risk of dementia (Reference: American Journal of Epidemiology, Feb. 15, 2009).
Food Sources:  Silica is found in varying amounts in foods that are grown in silica-rich soil and in sea plants.  The foods richest in silica include: Whole grain products, marine algae and seaweed (such as kelp), oats, barley, buckwheat, brown rice, rye, bran, whole wheat, millet, legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans), bell peppers, root vegetables (such as sweet potatoes, white potatoes with their skin, beets and turnips), with generally lesser amounts in other plant foods (such as leaf vegetables and fruits).  Plant foods that have been grown in mineral-rich soil, and have not been refined or have only been minimally processed, tend to contain the riches source of all nutrients, including silica (the refinement process tends to dramatically lessen the nutrient content of food, as does being grown in soil that is mineral depleted).  Because silica is primarily found in the outer layer of grains, processed (refined) grain products often lose their natural silica content during food processing.  It has been estimated that the average daily intake of silica in the typical American diet is between approximately 20-50 mg per day (those whose diet contains a lot of plant foods would probably consume close to the higher end amount, and those whose diet contains mostly animal foods or fast food would probably consume the lower end amount or less). 
RDA:  None established. 
ALT:  25 mg of supplemental silica per day for adults.  Daily intakes of 40 mg of silica per day are believed to have contributed to improvements in skin elasticity, texture and thickness, help strengthen weak bones, teeth, nails, gums, add a healthy quality to hair, and may have helped strengthen the structural integrity of the cardiovascular system.  There appear to be no health benefits with supplemental intakes of silica that exceeds 50 mg per day.  The use of silica alone as a treatment for thinning bones remains highly controversial (in addition to appearing to be ineffective).  Supplemental silica (in addition to whatever amount is naturally present in consumed food) is available from full-spectrum multivitamin/mineral supplements (usually as silicon dioxide), and present in the herb known as “horsetail” (equisetum arvense).  Some silica supplements contain silicic acid or sodium metasilicate.  In spite of the herb “horsetail” (aka “bottlebrush” or “shave grass”) being a rich source of silica, there is very little scientific evidence that supports its use for the virtues some attribute to it.  Because horsetail herb is a diuretic, which can deplete the body of its important electrolyte minerals, horsetail herb should only be taken for a short period of time and only under medical supervision. 
TOX:  The safety of high intakes of silica has not been established.  It is generally deemed prudent not to exceed 50 mg of supplemental silica per day.  Excess intakes of supplemental silica have produced skin rashes, GI tract irritation, and pustule-like skin eruptions (little pus-filled pimples).  Inhaling silica dust or fumes is deleterious to health, especially lung health.  The silica that is naturally present in food is not known to cause any adverse health problems in healthy adults.

Minerals are the basic elements that allow function and support structure, while vitamins most often act as coenzymes that support function – often with an active synergy between them.

Nutrients are the raw materials that allow Mother Nature to support life and for health to thrive.

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Prevention – Before reaching peak bone mass (30-35 years of age):

• Calcium 600-650 mg per day (from all sources, supplements and food)
• Magnesium 1,000 mg per day
• Support:  Proper nutrition and regular exercise (i.e., the MediterrAsian Diet and at least 30 min. of walking a day plus some Weight Training exercises)

Prevention – After reaching peak bone mass (35+ years of age):

• Calcium 300-400 mg per day (from all sources, supplements and food)
• Magnesium 1,000 mg per day
• Support:  Proper nutrition and regular exercise (i.e., the MediterrAsian Diet and at least 30 min. of walking a day plus some Weight Training exercises)

Maintenance – With verified dystrophic calcification and older adults (40+ years of age):

• Calcium 200-300 mg per day (from all sources, supplements and food)
• Magnesium 1,500-2,000 mg per day
• Support:  Proper nutrition and regular exercise (i.e., the MediterrAsian Diet and at least 30 min. of walking a day plus some Weight Training exercises)

Reduction – With verified substantial dystrophic calcification formation and buildup:

• Calcium 200 mg per day (from all sources, supplements and food)
• Magnesium up to 3,000 mg per day (for 6-12 months)
• Support:  Proper nutrition and regular exercise (i.e., the MediterrAsian Diet and at least 30 min. of walking a day plus some Weight Training exercises)   

Note:  The best source for calcium is generally considered to be that which is naturally present in food, rather than from supplements.  Supplemental calcium is considered to be not as usable by the body as the calcium that is naturally present in food, and is currently thought may contribute to unbalanced calcium metabolism and dystrophic calcification when consumed in excess amounts and not properly balanced with an adequate magnesium intake.  As a natural calcium channel blocker, magnesium is known to help support the proper utilization of calcium and balance calcium metabolism.  The best source for magnesium is a combination of that which is naturally present in food (for smaller intakes of magnesium) and from supplements (for larger intakes of magnesium), especially the advanced supplemental forms that do not have a laxative effect when taken in larger daily doses.

(See “The Five Pillars of Health – The Basis of Heart Health,” ”Calcium,” ”Magnesium,” “Potentiated Magnesium,” “Unbalanced Calcium Metabolism,” and “The Role of Calcium” for more details)

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Adults 19-50 years of age:

• Sodium 1,500 mg per day (from all sources, salt shaker and food)
• Potassium 4,700 mg per day (from plant foods only, not supplements)
• Support:  Proper nutrition and regular exercise (i.e., the MediterrAsian Diet and at least 30 min. of walking a day plus some Weight Training exercises)

Adults 51-70 years of age:

• Sodium 1,300 mg per day (from all sources, salt shaker and food)
• Potassium 4,700 mg per day (from plant foods only, not supplements)
• Support:  Proper nutrition and regular exercise (i.e., the MediterrAsian Diet and at least 30 min. of walking a day plus some Weight Training exercises)

Adults 71+ years of age:

• Sodium 1,200 mg per day (from all sources, salt shaker and food)
• Potassium 4,700 mg per day (from plant foods only, not supplements)
• Support:  Proper nutrition and regular exercise (i.e., the MediterrAsian Diet and at least 30 min. of walking a day plus some Weight Training exercises)

(See “The Five Pillars of Health – The Basis of Heart Health,” “Sodium,” “Potassium,” and “The Real Secret of Health & Longevity” for more details.)

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Vitamin-like substances have varying degrees of importance in human nutrition.  All of the following listed vitamin-like substances are available in supplement form.

Acetyl L-Carnitine –  Acetyl L-carnitine is thought to be a more bioavailable form of L-carnitine, and is composed of acetic acid and L-carnitine that are bound together.  L-carnitine is derived from the amino acids lysine and methionine, and is thought to support the burning of fatty acids for energy by facilitating fatty acid transport into the mitochondria, i.e., the cell’s power plant where the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is produced.  Acetyl L-carnitine supports memory and mental well-being, plays an important role in the production and release of one of the brain’s most vital neurotransmitters, acetylcholine, supports brain and peripheral nerve function, and supports intracellular energy transfer for skeletal and cardiac muscle function. 
ALT:  500 mg to 1,000 mg of acetyl L-carnitine per day for adults.

Alpha-Lipoic Acid (lipoic acid)  –  Alpha-lipoic acid is a potent antioxidant that is both fat and water-soluble that acts as an essential cofactor for many enzymes, especially as a cofactor in cellular metabolism, and because of it being both fat and water-soluble has the ability to quench free radicals both inside and outside the cells.  In addition to itself being an antioxidant, alpha-lipoic acid also extends the life of other antioxidants (such as vitamin C and glutathione), and because it has the ability to modify gene expression it has been used in conjunction with low-dose naltrexone (LDN) (a super-potent immune booster) and other antioxidants against various forms of abnormal cellular growth.  Alpha-lipoic acid supports the conversion of glucose (blood sugar) into energy, supports brain and nerve cell function, and is thought may be beneficial for nerve damage of the extremities, especially of the legs and feet.  Because alpha-lipoic acid has an effect on blood glucose levels, and may also affect thyroid hormone levels, those with blood sugar problems or who take thyroid medication should consult their doctor before taking alpha-lipoic acid. 
ALT:  30 mg to 100 mg of alpha-lipoic acid per day for adults.

Choline –  A water- soluble vitamin-like substance that is similar to the B-complex vitamins that, although not technically a vitamin, is classified as an essential nutrient that supports brain function (especially cognitive function of the brain), liver and nervous system function, is found in lipids (fats and fat-like substances) that make up cell membranes, is a vital component of the important neurotransmitter acetylcholine, and is naturally present in egg yolks, liver and soy lecithin. 
AI:  425 mg to 550 mg of choline per day for adults.

Coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone, ubiquinol)  –  Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is a fat-soluble vitamin-like substance present in cell mitochondria (the cell’s “power plant”) that supports energy production as a component of the electron transport chain, which is a chemical reaction that transfers electrically charged ions across cellular membranes during the conversion of biochemical energy from nutrients into the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) energy molecule.  Because CoQ10 supports normal heart, muscle and nerve health, it has been used in supplement form for those with a weak heart, and to help replenish its loss of liver production that occurs with cholesterol-lowering statin drug use.  Thus, CoQ10 has been used to prevent or counter the side effects of statin drugs, such as “myopathy” (a painful muscle wasting and weakness condition), and heart and nerve damage.  CoQ10 has a strong antioxidant quality.  It is thought that CoQ10 may help prevent the oxidation of triglycerides (blood fats) and LDL cholesterol (“bad” cholesterol), especially when taken with vitamins C and E, and is thought to have a regenerating effect upon other antioxidants such as vitamins C and E.  CoQ10, taken together with aged garlic extract (AGE), is believed to strongly support the normal function of the vascular system.  In a recent study (conducted by the Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute, Harbor UCLA Medical Center), they found: ”The combination of AGE and CoQ10 was independently associated with significant beneficial effects on vascular elasticity and endothelial function” (Reference: Nutrition, Aug. 1, 2012).  Ubiquinol, a reduced form of CoQ10, is thought to be the most biologically active form.
ALT:  60 mg to 100 mg of CoQ10 per day for adults in good health; 200 mg to 400 mg of CoQ10 per day for those with a weak heart (under medical supervision).

Essential Fatty Acids –  Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (LA) (an omega-6 fatty acid), which are considered “essential” because they cannot be synthesized (produced) by the human body and must be acquired from the diet to maintain health.  The typical American diet contains too much omega-6 fatty acids (primarily from polyunsaturated vegetable oils, an excess of which has been associated with certain types of abnormal cell growth and other health conditions).  Canola, olive, peanut, and flaxseed oils contain a better balance of the healthier polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids and the monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acids (however, concentrated and unbalanced intakes of ALA, the major essential fatty acid in flaxseed oil, has been associated in some studies with an increased risk of prostate and eye problems, while no such association has been demonstrated so far with intakes of ground whole flaxseeds).  The omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), especially from fish and seafood, help support normal cardiovascular health, are thought to help decrease the risk of certain heart-related conditions and possibly “sudden cardiac death” in those who have a heart condition, are thought to help reduce inflammation and concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP) (an inflammation biomarker in the blood which when elevated is associated with an increased risk for certain cardiovascular conditions or events), are thought to support normal blood flow by helping to make the blood less likely to clot by inhibiting adhesion molecules, may be beneficial for those with blood sugar problems (especially in those who also have elevated blood triglycerides), may help support reduction of inflammation and joint tenderness associated with autoimmune joint disorders, may beneficially support normal mental function (especially cognitive function), and is thought may help support normal eye, prostate, and breast health.  Sources for polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acids include vegetable oils (such as safflower, sunflower, corn, soybean, and sesame oils) and certain nuts and seeds (such as sunflower seeds, pine nuts, pecans, Brazil nuts and sesame seeds – note that Brazil nuts in excess can have adverse health effects because they contain very large amounts of the mineral selenium).  Sources for polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids include oily fish and seafood (such as herring, salmon, sardines, mackerel, oysters, trout, and albacore tuna, however, larger fish like mackerel and tuna may have mercury contamination while smaller fish like herring, salmon and sardines are less likely to be contaminated).  Omega-3 fatty acids are also found in walnuts, ground whole flaxseeds, and cod liver oil (cod liver oil should be used judiciously so as to not consume too much vitamin A and be a mercury-free source).  Ground whole flaxseeds (with their abundance of nutrients and fiber) are thought to provide a more healthful balance than concentrated flaxseed oil (which is thought by some to have too much unbalanced ALA fatty acid).  Flaxseed oil is a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids, and the liquid form (rather than capsules) is believed by some to be a useful adjunct against abnormal cell growth when blended with a sulfur-based protein carrier such as nonfat cottage cheese (which is thought to fully activate the fatty acids in the flaxseed oil).  Their recipe: 1 tablespoon of flaxseed oil thoroughly mixed with ½ cup (4 oz) of cottage cheese, per 100 pounds of body weight, per day, in divided servings (Reference: beckwithfamily.com, budwigcenter.com, and survivingcancernaturally.com) - but which has not been scientifically substantiated.  Sources for monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acids include avocados, olives, peanuts, certain nuts (such as almonds and cashews), and canola, olive and peanut oils.  A balance between omega-3, omega-6, and omega-9 fatty acids are thought to be healthful, with the most healthful balance currently believed to be in favor of omega-3 and omega-9 fatty acids.  In addition to the polyunsatured omega-3 fatty acids, the monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acids are thought to be especially healthful.  
AI:  1,600 mg of omega-3 fatty acids per day from fish oil supplements for adult males, and 1,100 mg of omega-3 fatty acids per day from fish oil supplements for adult females.
ALT:  2,000 mg to 2,400 mg of omega-3 fatty acids per day from fish oil supplements for adults.  Intakes of more than 3,000 mg (3 grams) of omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil supplements per day may increase the risk of bleeding.  It is considered prudent to take the antioxidants vitamin E and vitamin C when taking concentrated forms of EFAs to help prevent oxidation of the fatty acids.  In regards to dietary fish oil consumption and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)-mediated calcium signaling inflammatory response, a recent study concluded: “This study demonstrated the new mechanism behind the positive effects of dietary fish oils in inhibiting inflammation originates from the rich concentration of DHA, which can directly inhibit the inflammatory EP1-mediated PGE2 receptor signaling, and that the inflammatory response stimulated by PGE2 in the fat stromal cells, which directly related to metabolic diseases, could be down regulated by fish oil and DHA.”  (Reference: “Screening and identification of dietary oils and unsaturated fatty acids in inhibiting inflammatory prostaglandin E” Shui-Ping So and Diana Ruan; BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Vol. 12, page 43, Aug. 31, 2012)

Inositol –  A water-soluble vitamin-like substance that is similar to the B-complex vitamins that helps support normal cellular and nervous system function, and is an important part of cell-signaling (communication between cells that allow cells to coordinate their behavior and activity).  Inositol was initially classified as a B-complex vitamin (vitamin B8), but eventually was found to be synthesized by the body and thus was declassified as a vitamin.  It is found in whole grains, legumes (especially beans), nuts and seeds, and certain fruits (especially cantaloupe and oranges).
ALT:  40 mg of inositol per day for adults.

PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid)  –   A slightly water-soluble antioxidant coenzyme vitamin-like substance that is similar to the B-complex vitamins that help support normal GI tract health and function, formation of red blood cells (erythrocytes), skin and hair health, is thought to have anti-fibrosis activity (fibrosis is the thickening and scarring of the skin or connective tissue that follows injury, infection, lack of oxygen, or surgery), is thought may help reduce the inflammatory effects associated with the degeneration of joint cartilage, may help reduce fatigue, may help limit the effects associated with mental depression, and may increase oxygen uptake at the tissue level.  PABA is found in whole wheat, wheat germ, liver, eggs and molasses. 
ALT:  50 mg of PABA per day for adults.  PABA can interfere with sulfa drugs.

Vitamin-like substances work hand-in-hand with all the other nutrients.

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In addition to the dietary macronutrients (protein, carbs, fats and water) and the more commonly recognized micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), other substances present in certain plant foods, classified as phytochemicals or phytonutrients (phyto = plant), have varying degrees of importance in human nutrition and are thought to work in a synergistic fashion with the other nutrients, and include:

Bioflavonoids – The large family (4,000+) of plant pigments (polypherol compounds) that are mostly responsible for the color of fruits, flowers, vegetables, beans, seeds and certain grains that are known collectively as bioflavonoids (or flavonoids), such as anthocyanidins (in berries, grapes and red wine), flavanol catechins (in tea, chocolate, grapes, berries and apples), flavanones (in citrus fruit), flavonols (in onions, broccoli, apples, berries and tea), flavones (in parsley, thyme, celery and hot peppers), and isoflavones (in legumes, i.e., beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and especially soybeans), all of which may have cell-signaling properties (communication between cells), antioxidant properties, and may help support cardiovascular health.  Pomegranate is an especially rich source of bioflavonoids and other phytochemicals that are thought to support normal heart health and function.

Bromelain – Bromelain is an enzyme derived from the stems of pineapples that helps digest protein when taken with food.  However, bromelain has another side.  When taken without food (that is, with plain water on an otherwise empty stomach), bromelain is thought to have natural antihistamine properties and as such is believed to help support the normal function of the respiratory tract which may be useful as an adjunct for certain chronic respiratory conditions (but not for acute attacks or dysfunction), some seasonal respiratory conditions, and exposure to certain environmental irritants.  In that regard, bromelain has demonstrated a strong synergy with the phytochemical quercetin, the essential mineral magnesium, and vitamin C to help support the normal function of the respiratory tract.

Chlorella – The nutrient-dense, water-grown, green algae that is the richest known source of chlorophyll – and as a result is an especially rich source of the essential mineral magnesium (in addition to the other nutrients it contains).  When dried, chlorella is about 45% to 60% protein, about 10% minerals, about 5% fiber, and contains small amounts of various vitamins and a broad array of phytochemicals that reportedly may help support normal cellular and cardiovascular function, help support the normal function of the immune system, and is thought may have an immunostimulatory effect that supports the enhancement of natural killer cell activity (Reference: Nutrition Journal 2012, 11:53, doi:10.1186/1475-2891-11-53).  Chlorella is thought to help support the inhibition of the formation of abnormal cells and their growth (thought to be by inhibiting the COX-2 enzyme that leads to inflammation), help support and strengthen the immune system that may help inhibit viral replication, help encourage the production of proteins that help regulate normal cell function, and help support the normal health and function of the cardiovascular system.  Chlorella appears to: (1) Have anti-thrombotic effects that may help improve blood flow and possibly reduce platelet aggregation (clumping); (2) Reduce blood levels of phospholipase A2 (PLA2), an enzyme that stimulates release of arachidonic acid (AA) from cell membranes as part of the cytokine inflammation cascade involved in dystrophic calcification (calcium deposits in soft tissues) of the cardiovascular system as well as other inflammatory conditions; and (3) Is believed to be involved in and help support the regulation of calcium metabolism (Reference: International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, Dec. 23, 2008).  Unfortunately, its use tends to produce a dark stool that could visually hide possible blood in the stool (which is a warning sign that should by medically evaluated).

Chlorophyll – Chlorophyll is a green plant pigment.  Chlorophyll is the primary photoreceptor pigment of green plants and algae that absorbs energy from the sun (via photosynthesis) and converts it into useable carbohydrate food energy.  Chlorophyll is a natural chelate.  That is, it is an organic substance that is naturally bound with an inorganic mineral – and that mineral is magnesium – with magnesium being the central atom that holds the chlorophyll molecule together.  Foods that contain the most chlorophyll are the darker green plant foods, such as spinach (contains 300-600 mg of chlorophyll per ounce, which is about half a cup of raw spinach) and the seaweed kelp, with lighter green foods (such as iceberg lettuce) containing less chlorophyll.  If it is a plant food and it is green, then it contains chlorophyll.  And, if it contains chlorophyll, then it also contains the essential mineral magnesium.  It is thought that chlorophyll helps support normal GI tract function, and may help bind certain abnormal cell formation and growth substances in the intestinal tract, interfere with their absorption, and promote their elimination.  Chlorophyll is also thought to help boost the normal function of the immune system.

Cinnamon - Cinnamon is a spice that is harvested from the inner bark of the branches of a tropical evergreen tree that is native to India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, where it is widely cultivated by drying the bark and grinding it into the familiar spice.  Cinnamon is thought to help support normal brain function and mental cognition, help support normal blood glucose utilization, help support normal GI tract function, is believed to help support normal blood flow and normal cardiovascular function, and is thought may have antioxidant, anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory properties.  The active components of cinnamon are thought to be polyphenol polymers and its volatile oil content.  However, cinnamon extract in supplement form may adversely affect the liver if high doses are consumed frequently or for a long period of time because of its concentrated volatile oil content.  It is thought that a water-soluble cinnamon extract that has had the volatile oil removed, but has retained the polyphenol polymers, may not affect the liver in the same negative way. 

Cruciferous Vegetables – Cruciferous vegetables (aka “crucifers”), especially broccoli, are believed to help support normal cellular function and influence genetic expression to help inhibit abnormal cell development and proliferation, and is believed to do so by at least two mechanisms: (1) By inhibiting the action of an enzyme known as “histone deacetylase” (HDAC); and (2) By HDAC inhibitors working synergistically with DNA methylation, which together are believed to help support normal balance and cellular function.  The sulfur-containing compounds glucosinolates found in cruciferous vegetables (bok choi, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, horseradish, kale, kohlrabi, mustard greens, turnips and watercress), which contain isothiocyanate compounds that are thought to be associated with a lower risk of certain types of abnormal cell growth (but which may also be influenced by genetics and/or hormones), are thought to specifically help inhibit abnormal breast cell growth with an isothiocyanate compound known as sulforaphane.  The greatest concentration of sulforaphane is naturally found in broccoli.  The sulforaphane in broccoli is also thought to help lower the risk of abnormal cell growth of the stomach.  A recent Japanese study found that the daily consumption of only two and a half ounces (70 grams) of fresh broccoli significantly reduced the number of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) bacteria, which is believed to be a causative factor in peptic ulcers and gastritis and is suspected to be responsible for abnormal gastric cell growth.  It is thought that H. pylori and sodium chloride (salt) combine to enhance inflammation of the mucus membrane of the stomach, while the sulforaphane in broccoli appears to inhibit this inflammation.  The researchers concluded: “The findings in this study strongly suggest that sulforaphane has promise both as an antibacterial agent directed against H. pylori and as a dietary preventive agent against development of human gastric cancer.” (Reference: Cancer Prevention Research, April 2009, Vol. 2, No. 4, pages 353-360).  Besides fresh broccoli (the preferred source), sulforaphane is also available in supplement form.

Curcumin – Curcumin is the yellow spice ingredient in turmeric.  It is thought that curcumin may help support normal mental function and cognition (especially when taken with vitamin D3 which is thought to boost its effectiveness), may help support the normal function of the GI tract (but has been known to cause loose stools), may help support the normal utilization of blood glucose, and is thought may possess antioxidant properties.  It is thought that curcumin may help support the normal function of the nerves and blood vessels in the extremities, especially the lower extremities in those with blood glucose problems.  It is also thought that curcumin may have prophylactic properties that may help reduce the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines CXCL1 and CXCL2 in those at risk for conditions known to affect the prostate and also the breasts (Reference: “Curcumin Inhibits Prostate Cancer Metastasis in vivo by Targeting the Inflammatory Cytokines CXCL1 and -2″ Beatrice E. Bachmeier et al., Carcinogenesis, Oct. 2012).  Curcumin should not be taken by those who have or are susceptible to forming gallstones.  Curcumin is extracted from the ginger family turmeric root and is used as a cooking spice, and is also available in supplement form.

Dietary Fiber – Dietary fiber is a type of complex carb that is a combination of partially digestible soluble fiber (such as gums and mucilages) and indigestible insoluble fiber (such as cellulose, lignin and pectin), and is found exclusively in plant foods because it is what forms the structure of plants and plant cell walls.  Soluble fiber, so-called because it undergoes metabolic processing by the body via fermentation that yields beneficial end-products, is predominant in such food as apples, carrots, and legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans).  Insoluble fiber, so-called because it passes through the body essentially unchanged but nonetheless is beneficial as a result of it being hydrophilic (i.e., attracts and holds water in the GI tract, which increases intestinal bulk, softens the stool, and shortens stool transit time), is thought to help prevent toxin buildup in the intestinal tract, and is predominant in such food as whole grains, bran, flax, celery, green beans, potato skins and tomato peel.  Refined plant foods and simple carbs contain little or no fiber.  Dietary fiber is a complex carb that is in plant parts (fruit and vegetable skin, pulp, leaves, stems, roots, husks and seeds), and especially in whole grains, bran, and dietary supplement products – with psyllium fiber believed to be especially beneficial for the support and normal function of the GI tract and cardiovascular system.  Foods that contain fiber generally have variable amounts of both soluble and insoluble fiber.  Dietary fiber supports health, especially heart and colon health (is thought may help reduce the risk of the development of certain types of abnormal cell growth in the colon), and is needed by the body to support proper food movement through the intestinal tract and support its normal function (known as peristalsis). 

Garlic – A plant bulb used as a pungent flavoring agent.  Garlic may inhibit blood platelet aggregation or stickiness, may have a blood purifying effect by helping support the killing of various microbes in the bloodstream, and may afford a degree of protection from gastric and colorectal abnormal cell growth.  Garlic is thought to be useful against certain seasonal conditions when used in conjunction with the immune system boosters vitamin C and the mineral zinc.  Aged garlic extract (AGE), taken together with Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), is believed to strongly support the normal function of the vascular system.  In a recent study (conducted by the Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute, Harbor UCLA Medical Center), they found: “The combination of AGE and CoQ10 was independently associated with significant beneficial effects on vascular elasticity and endothelial function.”  (Reference: Nutrition, Aug. 1, 2012.) 

Lignans – Plant parts (polyphenol compounds) known as lignans (found in certain seeds, such as flaxseeds and sesame seeds, and in certain vegetables and fruits) are converted in the body to phytoestrogens (but have a much weaker activity than estrogen produced by the body) which are thought may help block the effects of estrogen produced in the body, and in so doing may help reduce the risk of hormone-associated abnormal cell growth (that may affect the breasts, uterus, ovaries, and prostate).

Phytosterols – Plant fat-like lipids (found in whole grains, wheat germ, nuts and seeds, peanuts, and unrefined vegetables oils such as sesame, canola and olive oil) known as phytosterols is thought may help inhibit the intestinal absorption of dietary cholesterol, may help support the normal function of the prostate (with the use of the phytosterol known as beta-sitosterol), and may help decrease the risk of some forms of abnormal cell growth.

Pomegranate – Polyphenol-rich pomegranate has been found to inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (substances secreted by lymph cells as part of the inflammation cascade).  Pomegranate is also a rich source of antioxidants, such as ellagitannin compounds (the same mouth-puckering astringent category of tannin compounds found in red raspberries, apples and tea), with one of the main ellagitannin compounds known as punicalagins accounting for about half the antioxidant activity.  Recent research suggests that the naturally occurring polyphenols in pomegranate are especially heart healthy, and are also thought may support the inhibiting of abnormal cell growth.  It has been found that it is the whole fruit and whole fruit juice (or whole fruit extract) that is effective, not the poorly absorbed ellagitannin (ellagic acid) sometimes isolated as a supplement.  (Reference: Journal of Inflammation, Jan. 2009, Vol.6, No. 1)

Quercetin – Quercetin is found in the skins of apples, purple onions, and peppers, is believed to help inhibit prostaglandin synthesis and pro-inflammatory enzymes, known as cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes (i.e., COX-1 and COX-2), is thought may be useful to help combat the inflammation associated with certain chronic respiratory conditions or environmental irritants, and is thought may help inhibit abnormal colon cell growth by reducing COX-1 and COX-2 stimulated cell proliferation (Reference: Journal of Nutrition, Jan. 2009).  Quercetin contains beneficial glycosides (carbohydrate sugar molecules), the most beneficial of which is believed to be rutin (see “Rutin” below for more details).  Quercetin is thought to have a strong synergy with the phytochemical bromelain, the essential mineral magnesium, and vitamin C, which together are believed to help support the normal function of the respiratory tract.

Resveratrol – A polyphenol compound known as resveratrol (found in red grapes and grape skins, purple grape juice, red wine, peanuts, and certain berries such as blueberries, bilberries and cranberries) is thought to help support the normal function of the cardiovascular system.  Moderate amounts of regular alcohol consumption (1-2 glasses of red wine a day) have been associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular problems.  However, it is now known that about 80-90% of the benefits are actually attributable to the temporary vasodilation (expansion) effect of the blood vessels in response to the alcohol content, with it remaining uncertain the exact role resveratrol may play.  Of course, regular consumption of alcohol will adversely affect the liver.  While the resveratrol naturally present in food may have some health benefits, resveratrol researcher Jane E. Cavanaugh, Ph.D. (Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA) calculated that: ”A 150-pound person would have to drink almost 700 4-ounce glasses of red wine a day to absorb enough resveratrol to get any beneficial effects.”  (Reference: 244th National Meeting & Exposition of the American Chemical Society, as reported in Medical Research, Aug. 19, 2012.)  There is speculation that resveratrol may inhibit certain types of abnormal cell growth (which it has done in some laboratory cell cultures) with the potential to extend the human lifespan, but the amount and concentration needed appears to exceed that which is possible in human consumption.  The healthiest source for resveratrol (and the other synergistic phytochemicals that accompany it) is believed to be from the non-alcoholic beverage and food sources indicated.

Rose Hips – Rose hips (rosa canina) is the fruit of the rose plant known as the “hip” portion of the rose, and is the richest known source of vitamin C (with it containing about  60% more vitamin C than citrus fruits).  It contains numerous phytochemicals that have a strong synergy with vitamin C, and is believed to enhance the uptake and function of vitamin C in the body.  Rose hips contain many beneficial polyphenols (such as anthocyanins and several glycosides of quercetin), several carotenoids (such as beta-carotene, lutein, lycopene and zeaxanthin) that act as antioxidants, and a variety of minerals and other vitamins in addition to vitamin C.  Rose hips has demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties and in clinical studies has reduced blood levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), which is an inflammation marker in the blood that when elevated is believed to be indicative of having the presence of an inflammatory process involving the cardiovascular system.  Rose hips have been studied with some success involving the reduction of inflammatory conditions associated with the degeneration of joint cartilage.  During WWII, when the availability of citrus fruits were non-existent in England, the English government cultivated rose hips and made it into a syrup to keep them supplied with vitamin C to stave-off the ravages of “scurvy.”

Rutin – A natural bioflavonoid that is a glycoside (carbohydrate sugar molecule) of, and has a strong synergy with, the phytochemical quercetin (chemically rutin is also know as quercetin-3-rutinoside).  It is believed that rutin has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.  Rutin is an important phytochemical that is thought to have the ability to strengthen and modulate (regulate) the permeability of the walls of blood vessels.  Rutin is especially known to help support the structural integrity and normal functional permeability of the smallest and most delicate blood vessels, the capillaries.  It is thought that rutin flavonoids help support normal blood circulation by helping to inhibit platelet aggregation (stickiness) and fibrin generation, thus having an anti-thrombotic (blood clot formation) effect.  (Reference: Rutin researcher Dr. Robert Flaumenhaft, Division of Hemostasis and Thrombosis at BIDMC, and Associate Professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School; as published in NaturalNews.com, June 5, 2012.)  Rutin has a strong synergy with vitamin C, helping to support and maintain all collagen structures (such as the skin, blood vessels, and all connective tissues).  Studies suggest that rutin may have a cardio-protective quality, may have a beneficial effect on certain inflammatory conditions, and may be beneficial in helping to support normal eye and nerve function in those with blood glucose problems.  Rutin is believed to inhibit an enzyme (known as aldose reductase) that is normally present in the eyes and nerves which converts glucose (primarily from ingested carbs) into a sugar alcohol known as sorbitol.  Too much sorbitol trapped in the eye and nerve cells may damage these cells and lead to the common complications associated with blood glucose problems – retinopathy (eye damage) and neuropathy (nerve damage).  It is believed that rutin may help prevent these complications.  Rutin is naturally present in citrus fruits, buckwheat, black tea, the skins of apples, and anywhere there is quercetin (see “Quercetin” above).  Rutin is also available as a stand-alone supplement, usually in 500 mg per capsule or tablet potency.  A 500 mg capsule taken once or twice a day is generally considered safe.  However, there have been some reports of rarely occurring allergic-reaction side effects in those who are sensitive to rutin, which include dizziness, an elevated heart rate, headache, muscle stiffness, fatigue, diarrhea, and an upset stomach.  Those who are allergic to rutin should not take it in supplement form.  A high intake of rutin in supplement form has not been evaluated for safety.  Rutin that is naturally present in food is not known to cause any adverse effects.

“Functional Foods” that are considered an especially healthful addition to the diet include:

Probiotics are friendly bacteria and yeasts (microflora) that benefit the intestinal tract.  The most common are the transitory lactobacillus acidophilus and bifidobacterium bifidum bacteria strains typically used in yogurt production and in some probiotic supplements, and the friendly microflora that survive stomach acid and adhere to the mucosal membranes to colonize the intestinal tract and promote intestinal tract health, such as saccharomyces boulardii and lactobacillus plantarum, and are beneficial and especially useful to replenish intestinal flora after a course of antibiotics.  Sometimes accompanying probiotics are the probiotic food fructooligosaccharide (FOS) or mannanoligosaccharide (MOS), which are a type of non-digestible carbohydrate (short-chain sugar molecules) similar to fiber, and are often referred to as a “prebiotic.”

Psyllium Fiber supports intestinal tract function, digestion and health (see “Fiber”).

Green Foods (aka “super greens” such as barley grass and wheat grass) provide varying amounts of a wide variety of plant-based nutrients (phytonutrients) and chlorophyll, and are thought to be especially healthful.

Marine Superfoods, which include astaxanthin (a powerful antioxidant carotenoid common in marine algae and seafood that, unlike other carotenoids, does not convert to vitamin A activity), blue-green algae, chlorella (the richest known source of chlorophyll), marine phytoplankton, and spirulina, all of which are reportedly full of health-promoting nutrients and phytochemicals.

BAP – Current research suggests that a daily amount of fresh broccoli, about 2½ oz. a day (loaded with sulforaphane which is thought to support normal cell function and may help inhibit abnormal cell formation and growth), an apple a day (the skins of which are loaded with anti-inflammatory quercetin), and a few ounces of pomegranate juice each day (loaded with health-promoting polyphenols and antioxidants), is thought to strongly support health, especially cardiovascular and cellular health, and appears to be an important factor in preventing and inhibiting abnormal cell growth.  The old adage of “An apple a day keeps the doctor away” should be updated to: Broccoli, Apple and Pomegranate each day – BAP for Health.  (For those who do not like the taste of broccoli, try it lightly steamed with one or all of the following healthy taste enhancers as a topping: Tomato paste, olive oil, garlic, lemon or lime juice, and/or any spice or herb of choice.)

Do not confuse the “BAP” (of “BAP for Health”) with bisphenol A (BPA), a toxic chemical typically used in the production of polycarbonate plastics that when ingested is thought to disrupt the normal hormone balance that may contribute to sexual and cellular dysfunction, and has been linked to cardiovascular and blood sugar problems as well as abnormal cell growth.  Food and water containers made from BPA-containing polycarbonate plastics are usually a rigid plastic and often marked on the bottom with the initials “PC” and have a recycling number of 7 (in a small triangle typically on the bottom of the container).  BPA is thought to migrate into the food or beverage from the containers, and is thought to be especially released into the food if such containers are zapped in the microwave.  The recycling numbers 1, 2, and 4 are considered safer choices for food/juice/water plastic containers.

The macronutrients, micronutrients and phytochemicals naturally present in food have a natural and strong synergy with each other and form the basis of health and life.

Moreover, a broad plant-based diet that encompasses a wide variety of fresh vegetables and fruits, legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans), fish and seafood (including sea plants), 100% whole grains, olive oil, nuts, seeds, a select few animal-based foods like fresh free-range eggs, a little cultured nonfat dairy (yogurt), a little soft white cheese, occasional fresh meat, contains very little (if any) sugar, refined carbs or sugar-laden foods, and contains no trans fats or hydrogenated oils, remains the foundation of health.  This kind of a healthy diet can be thought of as a natural blend of the “Mediterranean Diet” with a strong Asian seafood influence, and is known as the MediterrAsian Diet.

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The Glycemic Index (GI) is a numerical ranking method that was developed in the early 1980’s as a way of estimating how quickly a consumed food would elevate the blood glucose (blood sugar) level.  It is based upon the carbohydrate content of food.  The GI also indirectly indicates the degree of pancreas stimulation.  When consumed, carbohydrates (carbs) trigger insulin secretion by the pancreas, and it is the hormone insulin that ushers glucose into the cells for its use as an energy source.  Basically, it is glucose metabolism (the ATP energy-yielding breakdown and anaerobic enzymatic conversion of glucose, known as glycolysis) inside cells that provides the cells with their functional energy.  Over the years the GI has been refined and expanded as more data became available and better understood.  This has resulted in a large and comprehensive compilation of many hundreds of foods.  However, and in spite of its comprehensiveness, in actual use its sheer size alone has made it impractical and cumbersome to use.  It also had other shortcomings, not the least of which was how much per usual serving a particular food would increase the blood glucose level when compared to other foods, that is, how much of a carbohydrate load-burden did it introduce to the body.  This became known as the Glycemic Load (GL), which is a separate numerical ranking based upon serving size.  Notwithstanding the fact that serving sizes often vary from food to food (and from person to person) in the real world, cross-referencing the GL with the GI just added another layer of confusion and made it even more cumbersome to use in any practical way.  To overcome these problems and to update the concept, The Research Lab (an orthomolecular research facility) joined forces with the nutritional supplement producer Maxcelint Laboratories to develop a simple, much more concise, and far more user-friendly listing that takes into account all the variables in one easy-to-use guide – called the Advanced Glycemic Index.  The Advanced Glycemic Index (AGI) focuses on kinds of foods and how they affect blood glucose and impact insulin secretion, clearly delineates high, moderate, and low effects, and is served with a generous portion of common sense.

In the Advanced Glycemic Index, the higher the AGI number, the quicker the consumed food is converted to blood glucose and the greater the insulin response – and the least healthy that food is from a blood glucose elevating and insulin stimulating standpoint.  Chronically elevated blood glucose is the well-known precursor to insulin resistance and blood sugar problems, and a strong contributory factor in weight gain, obesity, and cardiovascular problems.

The AGI for foods is merely a guide.  However, once familiar with what kind of foods spike blood glucose and a quick insulin response (and understand the health consequences of regularly consuming those foods), it will become easier to make healthy food choices.  The type of food you consume today, will to a large extent dictate your health status tomorrow.

Carbs

Something to keep in mind with the Advanced Glycemic Index (as well as its predecessors) is that it only applies to the carbohydrate content of food, and how quickly a particular food elevates blood glucose levels – and how quickly it does so relative to each other.  It does not mean that “Meat” with an AGI of only 28 is healthier than “Oatmeal” with an AGI of 49, or that whole “Milk” at 40 is healthier than whole wheat “Bread” at 64.  Obviously, foods that contain more protein and/or fat will digest slower and thus have a lower AGI, while foods that are predominately carbohydrate will digest faster and thus have a higher AGI – with refined carbs and sugar-laden foods having the highest AGI.  Refined carbs are sugar in disguise.

Refined carbs are plant foods (grains mostly) that have been processed to the extent that the fiber, bran, and most of the nutrients have been removed, and/or have had some form of sugar added (which is itself a refined carb).  When ingested, the body can’t tell the difference between refined carbs and sugar, and handles it the same as if it was sugar.  It has recently been discovered that sugar alters the balance of intestinal bacteria (microflora) that normally reside in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which can manifest as GI tract functional disruption and modify nutrient digestion.

Other factors to consider are: 1. How much fiber the food contains.  Fiber slows the conversion to glucose – compare whole wheat bread (64) with white bread (84).  2. How much bran is in the food.  Bran (the outer covering of grains) provides more substance, which also slows the conversion to glucose – compare brown rice (79) with white rice (90).  3. Consider how the food is prepared.  Cooking evaporates moisture in food, as does the drying of food, which concentrates the sugar content – compare raw carrots (20) with cooked carrots (66), and fresh fruit (60) with dried fruit (78).  Whole foods generally have a lower AGI than extracts – compare whole fruit (60) with fruit juice (64).

Fiber is part of whole plant foods that have not been processed into a refined carb.  It is naturally contained in the plant’s outer protective shell, husk, or skin (in grains it’s called “bran”), or located within the plant’s structure (as “gums” that hold the plant together).  Fiber is also within the plant’s structure where it forms the plant’s supporting framework (in effect, the plant’s skeleton), and forms the plant’s cell membranes.  Common sources of bran and gums include whole grains (such as barley, oats and wheat), and legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans).  Guar gum, gum arabic and agar are common plant-derived gums used as food additives.  Cellulose, an indigestible complex carb, is found in: Apples, beets, broccoli, raw carrots, celery, green beans, lima beans, pears, peas and whole grains.  Hemicellulose, also an indigestible complex carb, is found in: Apples, bananas, beans, beets, cabbage, corn, leafy green vegetables, pears, peas and whole grains.  Pectin, a partially digestible complex carb, is found in: Apples, avocados, bananas, beets, cabbage, raw carrots, citrus and most fruits, okra and peas.  Plant foods provide a wide variety of healthful dietary fiber.

Not all fiber comes from plants.  Some forms of fiber come from seeds.  “Psyllium” comes from the husks of psyllium seeds, and “lignin” comes from flaxseeds and sesame seeds. Lignins are abundantly found in flaxseeds and sesame seeds (and most other seeds), and also in raw carrots, green beans, peaches, peas, potato skins, strawberries, tomatoes and whole grains.  Psyllium fiber is a hydrophilic mucilloid (aka mucilage, which means it works with water) that stimulates peristalsis (the wave of muscle contractions in the intestines that moves things along) which promotes normal waste elimination and helps prevent intestinal toxin buildup, and can help lower blood cholesterol by binding with bile acids in the intestinal tract.  Because psyllium fiber is such a strong hydrophilic (attracts and holds water) it can be used by those who are especially sensitive to the mineral magnesium (which is inherently hydrophilic) by diverting magnesium’s hydrophilic affect when the magnesium is taken after ingesting the psyllium fiber.  Potentiated Magnesium (pMg) was specifically formulated to overcome the inherent hydrophilic nature of magnesium, but studies revealed that about 10-20% of people are extra sensitive to magnesium, even the magnesium in pMg.  The intake of psyllium fiber improved the uptake of pMg, even in those who were the most sensitive to magnesium.

Vegetables are a special category of carbohydrate.  Leafy vegetables rank very low (19) on the AGI.  However, root vegetables (tubers) are different.  Vegetables that grow underground (such as beets, carrots, potatoes and turnips) form their carbohydrate content a little differently (and more concentrated) than vegetables that grow in the sunshine.  When tubers are cooked their sugar content becomes even more concentrated.  In fact, the sugar content of beets is so concentrated that it is often processed into “beet sugar,” which has been used commercially almost as much as “cane sugar.”  Another factor that affects the uptake of tubers is their color, which signifies their nutrient and phytochemical content.  Tubers with color (such as beets, carrots, sweet potatoes and yams) take longer to assimilate because there is more in them for the body to process.  Tubers that lack color (such as white potatoes) are assimilated much quicker.

One particular source of confusion for many people is products made with flour.  Baked goods made with “wheat flour” or “unbleached enriched wheat flour” are made from nothing more than ordinary white flour, which is a refined carb.  On the other hand, products made exclusively from “100% whole wheat flour” (or some other whole grain), are wholesome products.  When white flour is manufactured the inner “germ” and the outer “bran” are milled away.  This is done to provide a more stable product that has a longer shelf life – at the expense of its nutritional value and fiber content.  Food products made from 100% whole grains have the natural oil-containing germ portion and the fiber-containing bran intact, which makes a significant difference in their nutrient and fiber content.  The key wording to look for when reading the label of a food product made from grains is “100% whole grain.”  Thus, a “Wheat Bread” or a “Whole Wheat Bread” are not the same thing as the more nutrient-dense and fiber-containing “100% Whole Wheat Bread.”  To add to the confusion, some breads are a combination of whole wheat and white flour, and then are deceptively able to label their bread as “whole wheat.”  Plus, the manufacturers often use even more deceptive wording.  Is a product that “contains 100% whole grains” the same thing as a product that is entirely made from 100% whole grains?  Of course not.  Grain products that are labeled with anything other than made exclusively or entirely from 100% whole grains is at least part a refined carb, and refined carbs are handled by the body the same as if it is sugar.

Sugar will quickly elevate blood sugar (blood glucose), some forms of sugar more quickly than others.  Common forms of sugar include:  (1) Dextrose – Grape sugar, a basic sugar that is a naturally occurring form of glucose;  (2) Fructose – Fruit sugar, a basic sugar that naturally occurs in fruit that is 98% pure crystalline fructose (not to be confused with “high-fructose corn syrup”);  (3) Galactose – A basic sugar found in dairy products, sugar beets, gums and mucilage;  (4) Glucose – A basic sugar that supplies energy and is involved in glycation of proteins and lipids (fats and sterols), the regular excess consumption of which may lead to the complications commonly seen in those with blood sugar problems (such as eye-damaging retinopathy, kidney damage, vascular and nerve-damaging peripheral neuropathy, and cardiovascular damage);  (5) Invert Sugar – A sucrose-based sweetener that is equal parts glucose and fructose, and is used to help keep food products made with it moist;  (6) Lactose – Milk sugar, which is composed of glucose and the much less-sweet galactose;  (7) Maltose – Malt sugar, composed of glucose molecules that have a reduced sweetness; and (8) Sucrose – Common white table sugar refined from sugar cane or sugar beets, composed of equal parts of glucose and fructose, formally the most common sweetening agent used in food, but has subsequently been replaced by less-expensive-to-produce high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) which is omnipresent in processed food products and many beverages.  To downplay the negative image of HFCS, it has recently been referred to as “corn sugar” (which brings to mind the old adage: “A rose by any other name…”).  It is the “ose” suffix that indicates a sugar.

The more there are other nutrients that naturally occur with sugar, the more slowly it will be converted to blood glucose.  Good examples of this are lactose in milk and fructose in fruit.  Milk has protein and fat that slows lactose uptake, and fruit has fiber and many phytonutrients that somewhat slow fructose uptake.

Other sweetening agents that are basically sugar include: Turbinado sugar, honey, molasses, corn syrup, and the less common sweetening agents maple syrup (a sugar maple tree resin extract, aka sap), and sorghum (a plant extract).  Turbinado sugar (aka “raw sugar”) is nothing more than cane sugar crystals where a small amount of molasses remains or has been added.  The molasses adds a tiny bit of nutrients and provides a richer flavor, but raw sugar consumption will still elevate blood glucose levels essentially the same as ordinary white sugar (sucrose).  Honey has some nutritive value which slightly slows its conversion to blood glucose.  The same thing holds true of Molasses, which is the residue of refined sugar, and converts to blood glucose even slower than honey because it is rich in several minerals and vitamin B6.  Corn syrup (which is obviously derived from corn) is used in a large variety of processed foods and beverages as high-fructose corn syrup (aka “corn sugar”), the habitual consumption of which has been implicated as a key factor in the development of insulin resistance and blood glucose problems.  High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) readily spikes blood glucose and insulin secretion, and tops the AGI at 100.

Elevated Blood Sugar Effects

It is well-known that the habitual consumption of refined carbs, sugar, and sugar-laden foods can lead to a carbohydrate metabolic disorder, characterized by abnormally high glucose and insulin levels in the blood.  Insulin is the pancreas-produced hormone that normally ushers glucose into cells for its metabolic use, with its secretion being triggered by carbohydrate consumption.  However, with the habitual consumption of refined carbs and sugar, which spikes insulin secretion, two things can occur: (1) The cell receptors can eventually become desensitized and resistant to the flood of insulin (a condition known as “insulin resistance”), which is the fundamental breakdown in the ability of the cells to properly process glucose and utilize insulin; and (2) The buildup of glucose and insulin in the bloodstream can negatively affect the normal function of the blood vessels, nerves, eyes, heart, brain and kidneys, and contribute to cardiovascular endothelial cell damage and inflammation, as well as cognitive impairment (because ingested sugar is readily and quickly converted to blood glucose and then goes directly to the brain, essentially bypassing liver processing unlike other nutrients, too much or too little can have a tremendous impact on normal brain function and cognition).  It is equally well-known that if the pancreas is unable to produce adequate insulin (the result of the autoimmune destruction of the insulin-producing beta-cells of the pancreas, usually during childhood), that the buildup of glucose in the bloodstream can have much the same effect.  In either case, a proper diet and regular moderate exercise becomes extremely important, along with appropriate medical guidance.  Early studies involving curcumin (the bright yellow portion of the spice turmeric) and the mineral chromium, along with recent studies involving cinnamon, suggest they may help support the normal biological utilization of consumed carbohydrates and the normal cellular metabolism of blood glucose.

Obesity

It is no coincidence that obesity and blood glucose problems (which are becoming of epidemic proportions) and cardiovascular problems (which is of epidemic proportions) have a common fundamental cause: Improper diet, lack of regular exercise, and elevated blood triglycerides.  Blood triglycerides are elevated by consuming sugar-laden foods, refined carbs, and alcohol (which is also a refined carb).  Besides being a well-known risk factor for cardiovascular problems, elevated blood triglycerides is also a major risk factor for obesity and blood glucose problems, and is one of the best predictors of blood vessel and nerve damage known to affect the legs and feet (known as “peripheral neuropathy”), which is believed to affect about 60% of those with blood glucose problems.

In addition to insulin resistance and blood glucose problems, the habitual consumption of refined carbs and sugar-laden foods significantly contributes to weight gain, obesity, and cardiovascular problems.  Consumed refined carbs and sugar-laden foods readily convert to blood glucose, and excess blood glucose readily converts to blood triglycerides.  Excess blood triglycerides readily convert to stored body fat, and while in the blood are especially susceptible to oxidation by free radicals which can contribute to the arterial damage, inflammation, and dystrophic calcification sparked by unbalanced calcium metabolism.

When excess triglycerides are stored as body fat it is the worst kind of body fat, typically stored around the middle as belly fat (and the not so lovely “love handles”), which explains how someone who has a thin body build can still have a gut – they eat too much refined carbs and sugar, and exercise very little, if at all.  Thus, the connection between an improper diet, insulin resistance, weight gain, obesity, blood glucose problems, and cardiovascular problems – and explains why most who have blood glucose problems are usually overweight and usually have cardiovascular problems.

Magnesium (Mg) is the primary nutrient that is actively involved in glycolysis (the metabolic conversion and use of glucose), adenosine triphosphate (ATP) energy production and use (as MgATP), and has a profound beneficial impact on the health and normal function of the cardiovascular system.

While carbs are necessary for energy production, it is the slower-digesting complex carbs (such as vegetables, whole grains and legumes) that allow for a slow and steady conversion to blood glucose and the normal action of insulin to usher glucose into the cells, rather than spiking cell-damaging glucose and insulin levels the way refined carbs, sugar, and sugar-laden foods do.

Craving Sweets

So then why do we crave sweets (rather than a plate full of vegetables)?  The answer is basic biology.  Our body needs glucose to function.  In fact, it is so critical for brain function that it goes directly to the brain rather than to the liver first the way other nutrients do – it is a biological imperative for survival.  Plus, sugar has an agreeable sweet taste and provides a physiological “lift.”  This creates an associated “cause and effect” relationship, which creates an addictive situation – to the detriment of cell function and the eventual damage to our heath.  However, like any addiction, it can be broken – requiring only a basic understanding of how nutrients work in the body, coupled with a strong desire to improve one’s health.  The Advanced Glycemic Index provides a good guide for proper carbohydrate consumption.

How Sweet Is It?

The percent of relative sweetness of sugars (in their pure form) provides an indication as to how relatively quick they will convert to blood glucose after consumption:

Artificial Sweeteners

What about artificial sweeteners?  Artificial sweeteners (the stuff in the pink, blue, or yellow packets), even though they do not raise blood glucose levels, are not healthy alternatives to sugar because they are unnatural chemicals the body is unable to properly metabolize (in addition to them killing off the beneficial microflora in the intestinal tract).  Plus, the habitual consumption of artificial sweeteners has been suspect in several health conditions ranging from gastric upset and loose stools to abnormal cell formation and growth.

A sugar substitute in some manufactured foods is called sugar alcohols (common in “low-carb” foods and snacks), and are artificial sweeteners that commonly contain about half the calories of regular sugar.  Even though they may have limited calories, products that contain sugar alcohols can nonetheless legally be labeled as “sugar free” or “no sugar added,” with such wording being your tip-off that they contain some form of an artificial sweetener.

When sugar alcohols are used in manufactured food they are indicated on the label as “net carbs” and listed in the ingredients as: Sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol, erythritol, isomalt, lactitol, maltitol, or hydrogenated starch hydrolysates (HSH).  Sugar alcohols are generally not considered healthful, and can cause adverse side effects such as abdominal cramping, bloating and diarrhea (and perhaps more serious problems with extended habitual use).  Xylitol (which appears to be useful for dental health) and stevia (a non-caloric plant extract with a bitter aftertaste) may be the only exceptions but the jury is still out on them.  The long term effects of the consumption of sugar alcohols are unknown.

Sodas are triple trouble: (1) They contain large amounts of sugar, thus putting them into the “bad carb” category; (2) They contain phosphoric acid (even diet sodas) which leaches calcium from bones, making the bones weaker, and contributes to unbalanced calcium metabolism by dumping the calcium leached from the bones into the bloodstream; and (3) Their carbonation (the impregnation with carbon dioxide) has an acidic pH which contributes to the calciun drain from bones.  Plus, it is especially easy to consume large amounts of sodas because they are in liquid form, and to consume them often because of their addictive nature (encouraged by the omnipresent promotional ads that promote sodas as a fun and youthful drink).  In addition, the artificial sweeteners used in the so-called “diet sodas” ironically have sort of a rebound effect that actually encourages weight gain, the result of the body craving calories to fill the void created by the consumption of the diet sodas.  The artificial sweeteners provide a sweet taste but do nothing to provide satiety (that satisfying feeling).  The result is the body craves carbs (the refined carbs that provide the quickest influx of sugar) to fill the void – with the net result being weight gain.  Bottom line: Artificial sweeteners can actually cause weight gain, and it is the worst and most unhealthy kind of weight gain – fat around the middle and belly fat.

Whether the long-term consumption of artificial sweeteners actually contribute to serious health problems or not, one thing is for sure: These man-made chemical additives do nothing to benefit health.

Weight Gain

The most important factors that influence weight gain are diet, sleep, exercise, and the balance between the appetite hormones leptin and ghrelin.

Leptin is a body-produced hormone that helps regulate the appetite and is naturally stimulated when the stomach is full and adequate nutrients have been consumed (a state known as satiety).  Ghrelin is a body-produced hormone that stimulates hunger and is triggered by the lack of food, and by the consumption of sugar and refined carbs, and also by the consumption of dietary fat.  Probably part of the body’s survival mechanism, the effects of appetite-controlling leptin tends to be slower to kick-in, while the effects of hunger-stimulating ghrelin tends to kick-in more quickly, be more intense, and last longer.

Diet

The regular consumption of sugar and refined carbs stimulates weight gain.  Consumed sugar or refined carbs are readily transformed into triglycerides and stored as body fat in adipose tissues.  This is the fundamental way in which body fat is formed, and the more sugar and refined carbs eaten the more body fat that is stored.  The consumption of sugar and refined carbs triggers the production of ghrelin because the body senses that the sugar and refined carbs are devoid of useable amounts of nutrients (vitamins and minerals necessary for normal cellular function and metabolism), instead containing mostly an abundance of “empty calories.”  Thus, a person can be full but still crave more food.  Simply put, the consumption of sugar and refined carbs makes a person fat, and it is the worst kind of body fat – around the middle as belly fat.  An otherwise trim-looking person who has a bulge of fat around the middle is a person that regularly consumes sugar and/or refined carbs, or regularly consumes artificial sweeteners.

The regular consumption of excess dietary fat also stimulates weight gain.  The consumption of dietary fat disrupts the normal leptin/ghrelin balance.  It has recently been found that dietary fat intake upsets the normal leptin/ghrelin hormone balance by stimulating ghrelin production, which triggers hunger (Reference: Cincinnati Academic Health Center, June 5, 2009, in a paper titled: “Fatty Foods – Not Empty Stomach – Fire Up Hunger Hormones”).  Simply put, the consumption of excess dietary fat increases hunger.

Then there is wheat.  Not the wheat our ancestors cultivated and thrived on, but modern-day wheat that has been genetically modified over the years to maximize crop yield (an important consideration with the ever expanding population growth).  However, modern wheat has a protein in it called “gliadin” that is thought to bind onto the opiate receptors in the brain which can stimulate pleasure and the appetite – and stimulate a craving for bread and other wheat products – with the net result being an ever expanding waistline.  Gliadin should not be confused with “gluten” which is another issue altogether.  Other grains that are generally thought to be healthier alternatives to wheat include barley, oats, rye, brown rice, buckwheat, millet, spelt, khorasan wheat, and protein-rich gluten-free quinoa (which is technically a seed rather than a grain).  Wheat and sugar together are double trouble.

Bottom line: The consumption of sugar, refined carbohydrates, dietary fat, and wheat products stimulates weight gain.

A broad plant-based diet that encompasses a wide variety of fresh vegetables and fruits, legumes (beans, lentils, peanuts, peas and soybeans), fish and seafood (including sea plants), 100% whole grains, olive oil, nuts, seeds, a select few animal-based foods like fresh free-range eggs, a little cultured nonfat dairy (yogurt), a little soft cheese, occasional fresh meat, and contains very little (if any) refined carbs or sugar-laden foods, and no trans fats or hydrogenated oils, remains the foundation of health.  Such a healthy diet is known as the MediterrAsian Diet, which will help normalize the balance between the body-produced appetite hormones leptin and ghrelin, help prevent food cravings, help prevent unwanted weight gain, help the body attain and maintain a normal body weight, and greatly support the balance, stability, structural integrity, and normal function of the body.  Proper nutrition is the fundamental basis of health and longevity.  (See “Proper Nutrition” in “The Five Pillars of Health” section for more detailed information.)

Sleep

Lack of sleep is cumulative and disrupts normal body function, mentally as well as physically, and is responsible for “brain fog” which is a strong contributory factor in poor job performance and accidents (especially auto accidents).  Lack of sleep also stimulates hunger – a key factor in weight gain.  Lack of sleep disrupts the normal balance between the body-produced hormones leptin (an appetite suppressant hormone) and ghrelin (an appetite stimulant hormone).  The balance between these two hormones are related to the body’s ability to maintain normal body weight, as well as sleep patterns, and forms the link between the body’s internal urges to sleep and to eat.  Lack of sleep disrupts the normal balance between leptin and ghrelin, and in so doing stimulates the appetite and weight gain.  Further compounding the problem is that those who have become obese tend to become leptin resistant.  Adequate Sleep helps normalize the balance between these two important hormones, helps keep hunger in check, and thus helps the body attain and maintain normal body weight.  (See “Adequate Sleep” in “The Five Pillars of Health” section for what constitutes adequate sleep.)

Thyroid Gland

Another important factor in weight gain is an abnormally functioning thyroid gland, which upsets the normal hormone balance and affects the body in several deleterious ways.  The thyroid gland is an endocrine (hormone-secreting) gland that: (1) Regulates the rate of metabolism (i.e., how quickly the body uses energy); (2) Affects the growth and rate of function of several other body systems; (3) Controls how sensitive the body is to other hormones; (4) Makes proteins; and (5) Plays a role in calcium balance.  The thyroid gland is controlled by the hypothalamus gland and the pituitary gland, and requires the amino acid tyrosine and the essential mineral iodine in adequate amounts to function normally.  Kelp supplements are a natural source for the mineral iodine.  (See “Iodine” in the “Magnificent Minerals” section for more details.)

Exercise

The fundamental balance between calories consumed (from food) and calories expended (from physical activity) remains the cornerstone of body weight management.  Regular Exercise provides that balance, and is also considered the “catalyst” of health.  (See “Regular Exercise” in “The Five Pillars of Health” section for the importance of regular exercise.)

It has recently been found that short intense bursts of Interval Training exercises provides the muscles with more to adapt to, which is what supports muscle strength and conditioning the most.  This form of Interval Training consists of a series of 3-5 sets that last only 3-5 minutes each.  Exercises that are well-suited for this kind of workout include: Jumping Jacks (side-straddle hop), push-ups, sit-ups, chin-ups, squats, running in place, and even a few select Weight Training exercises (such as curls).  Interval Training can even be incorporated into walking by engaging in Runwalking (short bursts of jogging, each lasting about 30 seconds to one minute, interspersed throughout the walking session) if walking indoors on a treadmill, or “wind sprints” (short bursts of sprinting) if walking out-of-doors.  Of course, such vigorous exercising, or any unaccustomed physical activity, should only be engaged in after first getting the approval of your doctor.  (See “Get The Most From Your Workout With MAX” section for more information.)

Interval Training provides a good adjunct to 30/100 daily, which is walking for a minimum of 30 minutes a day, at a vigorous 100 steps per minute pace.  This type of walking, done every day for at least 30 minutes, greatly supports endurance, blood circulation, and heart health – in addition to being helpful for supporting normal blood glucose levels, and helping to attain and maintain a healthful body weight.

Bottom line: The consumption of Proper Nutrition (from the MediterrAsian Diet), along with Adequate Sleep (5 full sleep cycles per night), and Regular Exercise (30/100 daily or Runwalking plus Weight Training and/or Interval Training) will greatly help the body attain and maintain normal body weight.  (See “Proper Nutrition,” Adequate Sleep” and “Regular Exercise” in “The Five Pillars of Health” section for more detailed information.)

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